PROBLEMS  OF  AMERICAN  DEMOCRACY 


AMERICAN 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE 

SERIES 

AMERICAN  ECONOMIC  LIFE 

By  HENRY  REED  BURCH 

A  study  of  our  economic  problems  from  the 
civic  and  social  point  of  view. 

AMERICAN  SOCIAL  PROBLEMS 

By    HENRY    REED    BURCH    and    S.    HOWARD 

PATTERSON 

An  introductory  sociological  study  of  American 
civilization. 

PROBLEMS  OF  AMERICAN  DEMOCRACY 
By    HENRY    REED    BURCH    and    S.    HOWARD 

PATTERSON 

A  combined  treatment  of  the  political,  eco- 
nomic, and  social  questions  of  the  day. 


Problems  of 
American  Democracy 


POLITICAL,  ECONOMI 
SOCIAL 


BY 

HENRY  REED  BURCH,  PH.  D. 

AUTHOR  OP  AMERICAN  ECONOMIC  LIFE,  ETC. 

SOMETIME  FELLOW  IN  ECONOMICS,  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 

HEAD  OF  DEPARTMENT  OF  HISTORY  AND  COMMERCE 

WEST  PHILADELPHIA  HIGH  SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS 

PHILADELPHIA 

AND 

S.  HOWARD  PATTERSON,  A.  M. 

CO-AUTHOR  OF  AMERICAN  SOCIAL  PROBLEMS 

WHARTON  SCHOOL  OF  FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 

PHILADELPHIA 


NEW  YORK 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1922 

All  rights  reserved 


Printed  in  United  States  of  America 


^ 

*J  ^\  ( 


COPYRIGHT,  1922 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  April,  1922. 


"Our  faith  in  the 
future  of  the  Republic 
is  firniy  because  we 
believe  that  on  the 
whole  and  in  the 
long  run  our  people 
think  clearly  and  act 
rightly." 
— Theodore  Roosevelt. 


671710 


PREFACE 

To  the  gradual  crystallization  of  educational  thought  in 
favor  of  a  general  study  of  the  social  sciences  in  secondary 
institutions,  this  book  owes  its  origin.  The  attempt  has 
been  made  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  bold  outlines 
of  the  political,  economic,  and  social  development  of  Amer- 
ican institutions.  The  task  involved  presented  so  much 
freedom  of  choice  that,  naturally,  opinion  may  differ  as  to- 
the  relative  importance  of  the  various  materials  available 
for  this  purpose.  However,  the  aim  has  been  to  provide 
the  student  with  typical  material  for  a  general  introduc- 
tory course  in  problems  of  democracy,  which  not  only 
stresses  certain  fundamental  characteristics  of  our  own 
civilization,  but  preserves  at  the  same  time  a  proper  bal- 
ance between  the  political,  the  economic,  and  the  social 
factors  in  American  life.  Furthermore,  the  topics  selected 
have  been  treated  as  unified  problems,  each  of  which  is  dis- 
cussed from  the  standpoint  of  general  social  development, 
rather  than  subdivided  into  a  series  of  separate,  air-tight 
compartments  labeled  political,  economic,  and  social. 

Since  this  volume  presents  a  combined  treatment  of  these 
three  elements,  it  is  intended  primarily  to  meet  the  needs 
of  those  institutions  in  which  opportunity  is  lacking  for  a 
detailed  treatment  of  the  social  sciences  individually.  It 
follows  the  same  method  pursued  in  the  companion  books, 
American  Economic  Life  and  American  Social  Problems, 
and  draws  upon  material  contained  therein.  It  marks, 


vii 


viii  Preface 

moreover,  the  advent  of  a  new  movement  in  secondary 
education,  to  which  the  authors  hope  it  makes  a  definite 
contribution. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March,  1922. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    A  PROGRESSIVE  SOCIETY i 

II.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT     13 

III.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SOCIAL  ENVIRONMENT  .      24 

IV.  EARLY  GROUP  LIFE 34 

V.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  STATE  ....      46 

VI.  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  AMERICAN  STATE        .        .      57 

VII.  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  POLITICAL  MACHINERY   .       70 

VIII.  THE  POLITICAL  MACHINERY  IN  MOTION     .        .      82 

IX.  A  CENTURY  OF  POLITICAL  EVOLUTION        .        .      95 

X.    THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 109 

XI.    PROBLEMS  OF  THE  CITY 127 

XII.  OUR  INCREASING  POPULATION      .        .        .        .141 

.   XIII.  AMERICANS — OLD  AND  NEW         .        .        .        .157 

XIV.  THE  PROBLEM  OF  IMMIGRATION  .        .        .        .167 

XV.  THE  AMERICAN  RACE  PROBLEM  .        .        .        .179 

XVI.  POSSIBILITIES  OF  OUR  ECONOMIC  ENVIRONMENT    194 

XVII.  CONSERVATION  OF  OUR  NATURAL  RESOURCES    .     208 

XVIII.  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION     .        .        .        .223 

XIX.  MODERN  CAPITALISTIC  PRODUCTION     .        .        .    236 

XX.  MODERN  CAPITALISTIC  ORGANIZATION.        .        .    248 

XXI.  THE  REGULATION  OF  MONOPOLY         .        .        .    260 

XXII.  GOVERNMENT  CONTROL  OF  TRANSPORTATION       .     272 

XXIII.  REGULATION  OF  INTERNATIONAL  TRADE      .        .     286 

XXIV.  NATIONAL  REGULATION  OF  THE  CURRENCY         .    304 
XXV.  MEETING  THE  INCREASED  COST  OF  GOVERNMENT    317 

XXVI.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  INCOME  .    330 

XXVII.  PROPOSED    ECONOMIC    RECONSTRUCTION    OF    THE 

STATE 341 

XXVIII.  PROBLEMS  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR         .        .        -357 

XXIX.  THE  COOPERATION  OF  LABOR  AND  CAPITAL        .    371 


IX 


x  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXX.    THE  CONSERVATION  OF  LABOR    ....  387 

XXXI.    INDUSTRIAL  RISKS  AND  SOCIAL  INSURANCE         .  401 

XXXII.    STANDARDS  OF  LIVING 417 

XXXIII.  THE  PROBLEM  OF  POVERTY         ....  429 

XXXIV.  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  CHARITY          .        .        .  445 
XXXV.    THE  PROBLEM  OF  CRIME 464 

XXXVI.    THE  TREATMENT  OF  THE  CRIMINAL    .        .        .  479 

XXXVII.    DEFECTIVES  IN  SOCIETY 499 

XXXVIII.    THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  MODERN  FAMILY     .        .518 

XXXIX.    PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  A  DEMOCRACY         .        .  543 

XL.    THE  WIDENING  MORALITY  AND  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  560 

APPENDIX.    CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  .        .        .576 

INDEX   .        . 597 


PROBLEMS  OF  AMERICAN  DEMOCRACY 


PROBLEMS   OF  AMERICAN 
DEMOCRACY 

CHAPTER  I     ,;;•-.;.- 

A  PROGRESSIVE  SOCIETY      -   ;  .  •  . 

I.  The  problem  stated 

1.  Early  writers 

2.  A  dynamic  society : 

a.  Meaning 

b.  Examples  of  change 

3.  The  gains 

II.    The  nature  of  adjustment 

1.  Maladjustments 

2.  Need  of  adjustment 

3.  Meaning  of  adjustment 

4.  Principles  of  adjustment: 

a.  Natural  capacity 

b.  Cooperation 

5.  Progress  and  evolution 
III.  The  two  factors 

1 .  Some  illustrations 

2.  Influence  of  heredity : 

a.  Physical  traits 

b.  Mental  traits 

3.  Importance  of  environment 

The  Problem  Stated. — Since  the  dawn  of  civilization 
man  has  sought  an  explanation  of  the  physical  and  social 
world  about  him.  The  early  literature  of  the  ancients — 
the  mythologies  of  the  Chaldeans,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Nor- 

B  i 


2  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

wegians— has  several  different  explanations,  each  colored  by 
the  peculiarities  of  its  particular  environment.  Furthermore 
Early  local  institutions  and  codes  of  law  are  frequently 

writers.  explained  in  terms  of  some  mythical  lawgiver 
like  the  Spartan  Lycurgus.  Again,  from  the  days  of  an- 
cient Israel  is  heard  the  story  of  oppression,  and  prophets 
of  old  lift;  up  :t£eari  voices  against  the  evils  of  their  day. 
Among  the'earfy7  Greeks,  Plato  imagined  an  ideal  Republic 
in  which1  trie,  y  uSt/iHan/could  live  in  happy  security,  while 
the  drones  worked,  the  soldiers  policed,  and  the  philosophers 
ruled.  Toward  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  William 
Langland  wrote  the  Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman,  an  ideali- 
zation of  the  England  of  his  day,  in  which  all  existing  evils 
were  righted.  Each  age  has  dreamed  its  own  Utopia, 
which  the  march  of  the  centuries  has  not  brought  to  pass. 
This  attempt  of  society,  even  if  unsuccessful,  to  realize 
its  ideal  is  a  healthy  sign  of  progress.  Stagnation  is  the 
fate  of  the  land  whose  young  men  no  longer 

A  dynamic 

society:  dream  dreams  and  whose  old  men  have  ceased 
to  see  visions.  A  progressive  society  is  one  of 
ever  advancing  ideals  of  social  justice  as  well  as  of  con- 
stantly expanding  material  wants  and  increasing  produc- 
tion. Thus,  our  Western  civilization,  in  contrast  to  that 
of  the  Orient  of  a  generation  ago,  may  be  described  as  a 
dynamic  rather  than  a  static  society.  China  was  one  of 
the  earliest  nations  to  develop  a  civilization,  and  its  culture 
is  very  ancient.  Centuries  ago,  however,  its  social  habits 
of  thought  crystallized  into  fixed  and  unchanging  institu- 
tions. A  certain  adjustment  to  the  physical  and  social 
environment  had  been  reached  and  further  change  ceased. 
Western  nations,  hitherto  inferior  in  culture,  forged  ahead 
by  progressive  inventions  and  changing  habits  of  thought. 


A  Progressive  Society  3 

Many  kinds  of  change  in  a  dynamic  society  will  imme- 
diately suggest  themselves.  To  the  student  of  society  the 
most  important  developments  to  be  traced  are  the  social, 
the  political,  and  the  economic.  An  interesting  political 
evolution  is  that  from  despotism  to  democracy,  from 
"Divine  Right"  to  Constitutionalism.  An  Examples 
equally  important  development  is  the  series  of  of  chan^ 
economic  changes  which  we  call  the  Industrial  Revolution, 
in  which  the  handicraft  stage  was  succeeded  by  the  age 
of  machinery  and  capitalistic  production.  Migrations, 
resulting  in  the  mixing  of  different  races,  serve  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  a  social  change.  In  a  dynamic  society  political, 
social,  and  economic  changes  are  constantly  synchronous 
and  are  mutually  interdependent.  In  all  three  respects 
America  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  a  dynamic  society. 

Although  much  remains  to  be  accomplished,  society  has 
already  made  many  progressive  changes  or  adjustments. 
Serfdom  and  slavery  have  been  abolished,  and 

M  .  The  gains. 

no  longer  do  men  toil  so  incessantly  as  when 
conditions  of  life  were  precarious.  Primitive  man  lived 
from  hand  to  mouth  without  any  accumulation  of  surplus 
wealth.  Since  the  Industrial  Revolution,  however,  pro- 
duction has  so  increased  that  goods  formerly  regarded  as 
luxuries  are  now  consumed  by  all.  Ships  from  all  parts  of 
the  world  bring  to  the  poor  man's  table  commodities  which 
princes  of  old  could  not  have  purchased.  The  dream  of 
Roger  Bacon  has  come  true;  inventions  have  not  only 
lightened  the  burden  of  labor  but  they  have  resulted  in 
more  leisure  time  for  the  worker.  The  wealth  of  our  natural 
resources  is  so  abundant  that  exploittion  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary. Higher  ideals  prevail  and  public  opinion  will  no  longer 
tolerate  what  was  once  regarded  as  necessary  and  moral. 


4  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  Nature  of  Adjustment.— Maladjustment  may  be 
defined  as  the  failure  of  society  to  adjust  itself  properly  to 
Maiad-  Sreat  changes  wrought  during  a  lapse  of  time, 
justments.  These  changes  are  characteristic  not  only  of 
human  society  but  also  of  inanimate  nature.  For  example, 


NATURE'S  ADJUSTMENT — NIAGARA  FALLS 

with  the  passage  of  centuries,  the  earth's  crust  was  slowly 
lifted  up  and  a  mountain  barrier  formed  across  the  path  of 
a  stream.  Equally  slowly  and  steadily,  however,  the 
stream  proceeded  to  cut  a  newer  and  a  lower  river  bed  for 
its  passage  to  the  sea.  Witness  the  unconscious  adjust- 
ment in  the  physical  environment  at  the  Delaware  Water 
Gap.  Social  maladjustments  are  similar  obstacles  in  the 
path  of  society,  boulders  through  which  the  stream  of 
progress  must  cut.  In  a  country  like  China,  where  the 
force  of  tradition  is  potent,  these  maladjustments  are 
explicable.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why,  in  spite  of 
rich  natural  resources,  the  specter  of  poverty  stalks  through 


A  Progressive  Society  5 

the  land  and  the  death  rate  rises  to  enormous  proportions. 
The  ways  of  the  fathers  interfere  with  the  utilization  of 
the  physical  environment.  In  the  United  States,  however, 
there  is  little  justification  for  maladjustment.  America  is 
a  new  country,  full  of  modern  ideas  and  untrammeled  by 
ages  of  tradition.  It  is  rather  startling  therefore  to  find, 
in  a  land  of  popular  education  and  democratic  ideals,  a 
society  that  fails  to  change  the  environment  of  law  and 
custom  in  order  to  meet  the  new  conditions  of  the  world 
of  to-day. 

The  Industrial  Revolution,  culminating  in  the  factory 
system  and  in  large  scale  production,   transformed  our 
economic  life  and  made  social  adjustment  neces-    Need 
sary.  'In  the  present  age,  therefore,  a  number    adjust- 

incut* 

of  unsettled  problems  of  an  economic  and  social 
character  have  survived  the  transformation  of  our  influs trial 
environment.  Housing  and  health  condition.  >  do  not  con- 
form to  scientific  knowledge  and  present  ideals.  In  a  land 
of  riches,  poverty  still  exists,  and  women  and  children  labor 
for  long  hours  in  unhealthy  factories.  Men  are  still  sub- 
jected to  risks  in  the  dangerous  trades,  while  every  year 
human  lives  are  sacrificed  in  industrial  accidents.  Friction 
between  labor  and  capital  results  in  strikes  and  lockouts  and 
from  such  industrial  conflicts  society  suffers.  In  view  of  all 
these  circumstances  the  need  of  social  adjustment  is  evident. 
Adjustment  consists  of  the  removal  by  society  of  appar- 
ent obstacles  in  the  path  of  progress.  These  obstacles  come 
down  to  us  from  the  past  in  the  form  of  customs, 

Meaning  of 

laws,  fixed  ideas,  and  methods  of  living.    They    adjust- 
have  been  suited   to  an  older  environment — 
either .  physical  or  social — but  are  out  of  harmony  with 
present  conditions.     Society  must  therefore  change  these 


6  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

fixed  ideas  and  institutions  so  that  to-day  the  life  of  man 
may  reach  its  full  fruition.  For  example,  the  traditions  of 
hard  continuous  toil,  of  inadequate  wages,  of  bad  housing 
conditions,  and  of  unhealthy  working  surroundings  have 
come  down  to  us  from  an  age  when  such  ideas  were  an  out- 
growth of  meagre  physical  resources  or  lack  of  scientific 
knowledge.  But  to-day,  in  normal  times,  an  eight-hour 
day,  high  wages,  and  good  working  conditions  are  easily 
attainable.  Society,  therefore,  must  change  from  the  old 
to  the  new  regime. 

All  life  is  a  process  of  adjustment.  We  find  it  at  work  in 
the  physical  world,  in  organic  life,  and  in  society.  In  the 
Prmci  les  physical  world  the  process  is  unconscious.  But 
of  adjust-  when  society  seeks  to  change  environing  social 
Natural  conditions  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  man's 
present  life,  it  proceeds  on  two  principles.  First, 
it  acts  on  the  theory  that  man  himself  is  capable  of 
improvement  and  not  always  bound  and  fettered  by  laws  of 
physical  and  mental  inheritance.  While  recognizing,  of 
course,  the  existence  of  certain  inherited  physical  and 
mental  handicaps,  society,  in  working  out  the  process  of 
adjustment,  proceeds  on  the  principle  that  the  vast  major- 
ity of  mankind  is  inherently  capable  of  progress.  In 
other  words,  man's  future  is  not  regarded  as  always 
determined  by  his  biological  past.  The  son  of  a  pauper 
may  have  in  him  the  germs  of  greatness  as  much  as  the 
child  of  the  millionaire. 

In  the  second  place,  the  process  of  adjustment  is  accom- 
plished through  the  principle  of  cooperation.  Individuals, 
Coo  eration  workm&  together,  must  accomplish  the  changes 
in  the  social  environment  necessary  to  man's 
freedom  and  development.  Compared  to  the  organized 


A  Progressive  Society  .  7 

forces  of  society  individual  efforts  are  powerless.  Never 
will  great  changes  be  wrought  in  the  social  order  until  the 
doctrine  of  unshackled  individualism  is  recognized  as 
belonging  to  the  past  age  which  gave  it  birth. 

It  will  be  seen  that  all  change  is  not  necessarily  progress. 
Evolution  may  travel  in  a  circle,  and  it  may  go  backward 
as  well  as  forward.  Progress  is  conscious  evolu-  . 

Progress 

tion,  that  is,  purposive  changes  directed  toward  J^  ti 
some  clearly  visualized  ends.  Man  is  strongly 
influenced  by  his  environment,  as  will  presently  be  shown, 
but,  unlike  the  lower  forms  of  life,  he  in  turn  can  influence 
and  partially  change  his  environment.  The  various  fauna 
and  flora  of  different  continents  can  only  be  explained  in 
terms  of  differences  in  environment.  Wheat  will  not  grow 
in  the  tropics  nor  coffee  in  the  Arctic  regions.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  the  white  man  could  not  live  in  the 
tropics,  but  through  the  recent  sanitation  program,  which 
has  been  carried  out  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  and  which 
reads  like  a  romance  of  science,  the  tropics  have  been  con- 
quered and  made  safe  for  the  civilization  of  the  nations  of 
the  temperate  zones.  Irrigation  projects  and  railway  con- 
structions, which  cross  over  or  tunnel  through  gigantic 
mountains,  are  additional  examples  of  man's  conquest  of 
nature.  By  man's  conquest  of  nature  we  do  not  mean 
that  he  has  succeeded,  like  Ajax  defying  the  lightning,  in 
breaking  any  of  the  laws  of  nature,  but  rather  that  he  has 
come  to  understand  these  laws  and  to  use  them  construct- 
ively instead  of  letting  them  spend  themselves  in  some 
destructive  fashion.  The  discovery  and  utilization  of  fire 
is  an  illustration  of  the  sort  of  conscious  adaptation  which 
marks  man  off  from  the  lower  animals.  Centuries  ago  in 
the  Great  Glacial  Period  northern  Europe  and  America  were 


8 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


held  in  the  grip  of  a  great  ice  sheet.    When  the  ice  finally 
retreated  many  of  the  older  forms  of  life  had  become 


MAN'S  ADJUSTMENT — ROOSEVELT  DAM 

extinct.  These  species  had  been  unable  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  new  conditions.  Man  survived  and  earned  for  him- 
self the  name  of  the  adaptable  creature.  Evolution  is  the 
story  of  unconscious  adaptation  or  extinction.  Progress  is 
the  record  of  conscious  adaptation  to  avoid  extinction.  It 
took  centuries  of  evolution  to  develop  the  woolly  rhi- 
noceros, a  creature  suited  to  the  Glacial  Age.  By  his 
superior  cunning,  man  slew  this  animal  and  dressed  him- 
self in  its  warm  skin. 


A  Progressive  Society  9 

The  Two  Factors. — American  society,  we  have  seen,  is 
dynamic.  Consequently,  the  problem  of  adjustment,  like 
Tennyson's  brook,  must  go  on  forever.  Each 

age  has  its  own  set  of  problems.     For  an  ade-    illustra- 
tions, 
quate  study  of  these  problems  the  factors  of 

heredity  and  environment  must  be  carefully  considered. 
These  are  the  two  currents  of  social  science.  For  example, 
the  heredity  of  our  American  society  is  European,  not 
Asiatic.  Had  it  been  the  latter  the  development  of  our 
political  institutions  would  probably  have  taken  a  different 
course.  Again,  environment  played  its  part  in  American 
history.  Suppose  the  Appalachian  mountains  had  not  run 
north  and  south  but  instead,  east  and  west,  along  what  we 
call  the  Mason  and  Dixon  Line, — would  the  Union  have 
survived  the  period  of  sectionalism?  The  two  factors  of 
heredity  and  environment  may  be  illustrated  again  in  the 
problem  of  crime.  Is  a  given  individual  behind  prison  bars 
a  criminal  because  of  a  bad  heredity,  such  as  feeble-minded- 
ness,  or  because  of  an  unfortunate  social  environment,  like 
that  of  Oliver  Twist  in  the  story  by  Charles  Dickens? 

It  is  a  common  biological  fact  that  like  begets  like  and 
that  the  offspring  resemble  the  parents  in  spite  of  indi- 
vidual variations.    This  is  the  factor  in  evolu- 
tion  which   insures    the   persistence   of   racial  0?here<my: 
traits.     For  example,  a  swarthy  skin  is  char-   Physical 

traits. 

acteristic  of  tropical  races  just  as  blue  eyes 
characterize  northern  peoples.  In  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, heredity  tends  to  preserve  those  variations  which 
have  been  shown  to  be  favorable  to  a  particular  environ- 
ment. The  unfavorable  variations  tend  to  be  eliminated, 
and  thus  are  not  perpetuated.  In  the  course  of  many  cen- 
turies, the  favorable  variations  tend  to  become  the  only 


io  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

surviving  types.  Not  all  traits,  however,  are  transmissible. 
Acquired  characteristics  are  those  achieved  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  individual  and,  since  they  are  not  inherent,  they  are 
not  usually  transmissible.  Just  as  the  son  of  a  one-armed 
man  will  be  born  with  two  arms,  so  the  strong  biceps  of 
the  blacksmith  will  not  necessarily  be  inherited.  Weak 
eyes  may  be  inherited  but  not  the  blindness  caused  by 
some  explosion.  Tuberculosis  is  a  disease  caused  by  a 
bacillus,  and  it  is  not  inherited,  as  are  the  weak  lungs  which 
make  possible  the  attacks  of  this  disease. 

This  distinction  between  acquired  and  inherent  traits 
applies  to  mental  as  well  as  to  physical  characteristics.  For 
Mental  example,  the  problem  of  the  feeble-minded  in 
society  is  a  grave  one  because  feeble-mindedness 
is  an  inherent  trait  and  will  be  passed  on  from  generation 
to  generation  so  long  as  feeble-minded  people  propagate, 
in  spite  of  all  the  education  we  can  give  these  unfortunate 
persons.  Here  the  problem  is  not  so  much  one  of  environ- 
ment as  of  heredity.  A  progressive  society  is  seeking  con- 
stantly and  consciously  to  improve  its  biological  heredity 
by  the  gradual  elimination  of  degenerate  strains.  The  non- 
transmissible  character  of  acquired  traits  permits,  to  a 
certain  extent,  each  generation  to  stand  upon  its  own  feet. 
Although  this  principle  means  that  the  culture  of  the  ages 
must  be  learned  over  and  over  again  by  each  succeeding 
generation,  it  offers  hope  to  those  groups  that  are  victims 
of  an  unfortunate  environment.  By  this  law  society  has 
been  prevented  from  retrograding  and  "the  submerged 
tenth"  in  slum  environments  has  not  given  birth  to  pro- 
gressively inferior  offspring. 

The  relative  importance  of  heredity  and  environment 
has  been  frequently  discussed,  but  with  little  unanimity  of 


A  Progressive  Society  1 1 

judgment.  One  might  just  as  well  seek  to  compare  the 
importance  of  two  such  essentials  as  air  and  water. 
Recently,  however,  students  of  society  have  been 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  environment,  t&nceof 
This  is  largely  a  reaction  against  the  older  aristo-  ^Jnt?11 
cratic  point  of  view,  which  overemphasized  the 
importance  of  birth.  The  new  movement  began  with  the 
publication  of  the  works  of  Lester  F.  Ward,  the  pioneer 
American  sociologist.  He  pleaded  for  the  democratization 
of  knowledge,  and  believed  human  ability  to  be  widespread. 
Genius  is  rare  but  crops  out  in  humble  and  unexpected 
places.  It  is  not  necessarily  the  product  of  "Norman 
blood."  Indeed,  recent  investigation  has  shown  that  some 
so-called  "blue"  blood  does  not  represent  the  best  biologi- 
cal heredity.  The  importance  of  heredity  as  a  factor  is  not 
discounted,  but  rather  the  assumption  of  biological  super- 
iority upon  the  part  of  certain  races,  classes,  and  families. 
We  shall  see  that  the  term  environment  is  used  in  two 
senses  and  may  mean  either  the  physical  or  the  social 
environment.  The  next  two  chapters  will  discuss  in  turn 
the  effects  of  each  upon  man  and  society. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Tell  of  some  of  the  ancients  who  wrote  concerning  the  social 
problems  of  their  day.     Are  there  many  similarities  between  ancient 
and  modern  social  problems? 

2.  Who  were  some  of  the  pioneer  writers  in  the  social  sciences? 
What  did  each  contribute? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  "social  sciences"?     How  do 
they  differ  from  the  natural  sciences  such  as  physics  and  chemistry? 

4.  What  is  the  fundamental  trio  among  the  social  sciences? 
Can  these  subjects  be  easily  separated?     Give  reasons. 

5.  Do  you  expect  this  course  to  give  you  a  definite  solution  for 
each  social  problem  studied?    Why  or  why  not? 


12  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

6.  What  do  you  understand  by  a  dynamic  society?     How  does 
it  differ  from  a  static  society? 

7.  In  what  ways  is  America  a  good  example  of  a  dynamic  society? 

8.  Do  you  believe  that  the  world  is  getting  better?    What  are 
you  taking  as  good  tests  for  social  progress? 

9.  Compare  evolution  with  progress. 

10.  Explain  the  meaning  and  operation  of  adjustment  in  society. 

11.  What  are  social  maladjustments?    Illustrate. 

12.  Show  how  man  and  nature  mutually  affect  each  other. 

13.  What  traits  are  hereditary?     Illustrate. 

14.  How  has  this  law  of  heredity  helped  or  hindered  the  progress 
of  society? 

15.  Show  how  heredity  and  environment  are  the  foundation  stones 
upon  which  to  build  a  study  of  social  problems. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Plato's  ideal  republic. 

2.  More's  Utopia  or  Langland's  Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman. 

3.  America,  the  dynamic  society. 

4.  The  social  surplus. 

5.  Man's  conquest  of  nature. 

6.  Non-transmissible  character  of  acquired  characteristics, 

REFERENCES 

CHAPIN,  F.  S.     Social  Evolution. 
CONKLIN,  E.  G.     Heredity  and  Environment. 
KELSEY,  CARL.     Physical  Basis  of  Society. 
NEARING,  SCOTT.    Social  Adjustment. 
PATTEN,  S.  N.    New  Basis  of  Civilization. 
Ross,  E.  A.     The  Changing  Chinese. 
Ross,  E.  A.    Sin  and  Society. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  INFLUENCE  or  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT 

I.  Importance  of  the  physical  environment 

1.  Meaning 

2.  Examples 

II.  Effects  of  physiography 

1 .  Resources  and  occupations 

2.  Accessibility 

3.  Isolation 

4.  Form  of  government 

5.  Other  social  institutions 

6.  Cultural  and  religious  ideas 
III.  Climatic  influences 

1.  Temperature 

2.  Rainfall 

3.  Weather 

4.  The  conclusion 

Importance  of  the  Physical  Environment. — By  the 

influence  of  physical  environment  we  mean  the  effect  of 
nature  upon  man.    The  biologist  could  not  un- 

Meaning. 

derstand  the  desert  cactus  or  the  polar  bear 
without  some  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  environment  of 
each.  Similarly  the  student  of  society  must  know  the 
tropical  African  background  of  the  American  negro  in 
order  to  understand  some  of  his  present  characteristics. 
Civilized  man  himself  was  originally  a  product  of  his 
physical  environment.  Some  particular  favorable  element 

13 


14  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

in  nature  gave  the  Egyptians  or  the  Greeks  an  advantage 

over  less  favorably  situated  peoples.     Favorable  climatic 

conditions  or  abundant  natural  resources  react  upon  the 

development  of  civilization.     Although  man  may  sometimes 

dominate  his  physical  environment,  modern  as  well  as  ancient 

civilizations  are  largely  influenced  by  natural  conditions. 

There  is  a  custom  among  the  Eskimos  of  putting  to 

death  their  old  and  infirm  parents.     This  illustrates  the 

social  effect  of  the  physical  environment  which 

Examples.       ......  A 

is  found  in  the  rigorous  Arctic  climate  where  it 
is  difficult  to  procure  a  living.  Again,  the  Scandinavian 
immigrant,  unaccustomed  to  the  moderate  climate  found 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  prefers  the 
colder  Northwest  to  which  he  can  adapt  himself.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  negroes  who  migrate  northward  are  not 
adapted  to  such  a  climate  and  would  tend  to  die  off  in  our 
northern  states  were  their  ranks  not  recruited  by  fresh 
levies  from  the  South.  Professor  Boaz,  after  a  series  of 
experiments  in  which  he  measured  the  skulls  of  immigrants 
and  those  of  their  children,  put  forth,  perhaps  without 
sufficient  proof,  the  theory  that  the  effect  of  the  new 
American  environment  can  be  seen  in  a  physical  change  in 
the  shape  of  the  head  due  probably  to  a  diet  of  softer  food. 
If  this  be  true,  it  is  very  significant,  for  length  and  breadth 
of  skull  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  permanent  of  physical 
characteristics. 

Effects  of  Physiography.— Natural  resources  include 
soil,  mountains,  rivers,  minerals,  animals,  and  plants.  The 
Resources  great  river  valleys  of  the  Nile,  the  Euphrates, 
aationsCU"  anc*  tne  Ganges  were  sufficiently  fertile  to  sup- 
port a  teeming  population  and  thus  became  the 
cradles  of  civilization.  The  possession  of  forest  lands  rich 


The  Influence  of  the  Physical  Environment  1 5 

in  timber  for  ship  building,  as  well  as  proximity  to  the  sea, 
made  the  Phoenicians  great  mariners.  The  occupations  of 
a  people  are  largely  determined  by  natural  environment. 
In  one  region  men  are  fishermen,  in  another  herdsmen,  and 
in  still  another  farmers.  Each  occupation  develops  its  own 
type  of  culture.  The  story  of  ancient  history  is  a  record  of 
the  incursions  of  the  warlike  herdsmen  upon  the  more 
peaceful  and  more  highly  civilized  agriculturists  of  the 
plains  below.  Thus  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Hyksos, 
or  shepherd  kings,  lowered  the  civilization  of  that  region. 
In  ancient  Greece  there  came  into  conflict  the  interests  of 
the  men  of  the  shore  (merchants),  the  men  of  the  hills 
(shepherds),  and  the  men  of  the  plains  (farmers).  The 
location  of  a  source  of  motive  power  is  also  important.  The 
invention  of  the  steam-engine  placed  the  factories  of  Eng- 
land in  the  north  where  the  great  coal  fields  were  located. 
Thus  the  centre  of  population  was  gradually  shifted  from 
the  south  of  England  to  the  north.  This  principle  makes 
us  wonder  what  effect  the  development  of  China's  resources 
will  have  upon  oriental  civilizations. 

Rivers  and  bodies  of  water  are  the  routes  of  war,  of 
trade,  and  of  civilization.  The  open  door  into  central 
Europe  was  through  the  river  valley  of  the  Accessi- 
Danube,  and  up  these  plains  swept  successive  ] 
waves  of  invasion.  The  present  race  mixture  in  the  old 
empire  of  Austria-Hungary  is  the  modern  result  of  these 
invasions.  Down  the  Rhine  floated  the  civilization  of  the 
Christian  monks.  Later,  this  river  became  the  trade 
route  for  the  medieval  commerce  of  the  Hanseatic  cities. 
Palestine  was  the  highway  for  invading  armies  between 
Egypt  and  Persia.  Its  accessibility  caused  its  repeated 
conquest  by  successive  empires.  Thus,  because  of  fear  of 


!6  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

absorption,  the  people  of  this  land  have  clung  tenaciously 
to  their  national  characteristics.  Another  result  of  accessi- 
bility may  be  seen  in  Greece.  This  small  peninsula  has  the 
greatest  sea-coast  of  any  country  of  similar  size.  Thus  no 
point  was  far  from  the  sea  and  the  people  became  a  mari- 
time nation.  They  not  only  had  access  to  the  earlier, 
oriental  civilizations,  such  as  the  Egyptian,  but  were  also 
able  to  spread  their  own  culture  throughout  the  Mediter- 
ranean world. 

Rivers  and  seas,  however,  may  also  serve  an  opposite 
purpose  and  act  as  barriers  to  invasion.  Thus  England  has 
often  been  saved  from  continental  invasion  be- 
cause of  its  insularity.  Witness  the  Spanish 
Armada  and  the  futile  attempt  of  Napoleon  to  conquer 
England.  Mountain  ranges  are  also  great  barriers.  The 
Alps  have  been  an  obstacle  to  invading  armies  from 
Hannibal  to  Napoleon.  Note  how  the  physical  map  of 
Europe  frequently  coincides  with  the  political,  and  how 
often  mountains  and  rivers  form  the  boundary  lines  of 
states.  The  general  result  of  geographical  inaccessibility 
is  not  only  to  prevent  the  disastrous  invasions  of  barbarian 
peoples,  but  also  to  hinder  the  peaceful  spread  of  a  higher 
civilization  and  of  a  foreign  culture.  In  mountain- walled 
Thibet  the  group  culture  has  become  stagnant  because  of 
lack  of  intercourse  with  the  outside  world.  The  Scotch- 
Irish  settlers  of  our  early  American  history  were  among 
the  most  energetic  and  progressive  of  pioneers.  How  then 
can  we  explain  the  present  backward  condition  of  some  of 
their  descendants,  whom  we  designate  as  the  poor  whites 
of  the  southern  mountains?  The  solution  of  the  problem 
is  found  in  the  new  environment.  Shut  in  by  the  sur- 
rounding mountains,  they  have  isolated  themselves  from 


The  Influence  of  the  Physical  Environment  1 7 

the  culture  about  them,  and  the  most  primitive  conditions 
prevail.  Again,  the  climate,  or  rather  the  peculiar  local 
environmental  disease  known  as  hook  worm,  has  sapped 
their  vitality  and  produced  a  peculiar  type  of  laziness. 

The  people  of  an  inaccessible  land  feel  little  need  for  the 
protection  afforded  by  strong  government.    Love  of  liberty, 
with  perhaps  a  certain  degree  of  lawlessness,    Formof 
seems  to  go  along  with  a  mountain  environment,    govern- 
as  illustrated  by  the  Scotch  Highlanders  and 
Balkan  patriots.    Democracy  is  the  spirit  of  the  mountains 
and  aristocracy  that  of  the  plains.     Compare  democratic 
Switzerland's  initiative  and  referendum  with  the  Junker 
party  of  agricultural  East  Prussia.     Again,   democracy 
seems  to  be  fostered  by  the  growth  of  commerce.     Great 
plains  may  become  the  seats  of  successive  empires  as  in 
Asia,  but  a  land  broken  up  by  sea  or  mountain  develops  the 
political  ideal  of  the  city  state  of  the  Greeks  and  early 
Romans. 

Other  social  institutions  besides  the  State  are  affected  by 
geographical  environment.     For  example,  certain  environ- 
ments favor  the  pastoral  life  which  develops  a 
patriarchal  society.        Here  child-bearing  is  the    social  in- 

,  stitutions. 

great  duty  and  ^olygynous  marriage  becomes 
an  accepted  institution.  In  a  rigorous  and  barren  environ- 
ment it  is  difficult  to  support  many  children,  with  the  result 
that  the  polyandrous  family  flourishes.  Again,  let  us 
note  the  history  of  slavery  in  our  own  country.  Negro 
slaves  were  to  be  found  in  all  of  the  thirteen  original 
colonies.  Natural  conditions  in  the  North  made  the 
institution  unprofitable,  and  legislative  abolition  voiced 
the  popular  feeling.  In  the  South,  however,  where 
agriculture  was  the  leading  industry  and  where  plan- 


!g  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tation  life  suited  the  local  environment,  slavery  grew 
and  flourished.  A  great  civil  war  was  necessary  to 
decide  whether  a  nation  thus  divided  could  endure. 


THE  SEMI-TROPICAL  COAST  OF  FLORIDA 

The  national  character  of  a  people  is  also  affected  by  its 
geographical  environment.  The  awe  inspiring  aspects  of 
nature  in  India,  as  revealed  by  the  enormous 
mountain  masses  of  the  Himalayas,  the  ravages 
[defs?US  of  the  hurricane,  of  the  tempest,  and  of  the 
earthquake,  as  well  as  the  fierce  beasts  and 
snakes  of  the  jungle,  inspire  the  inhabitants  of  that  land 
with  the  feeling  of  fear  and  reverence  rather  than  that  of 
inquiry.  Hence  the  religious  spirit  of  that  environment  is 
depressing  and  awesome.  Tradition  is  hard  to  break,  as 


The  Influence  of  the  Physical  Environment  19 

the  British  government  has  found  in  its  dealings  with  the 
natives.  Greece,  on  the  contrary,  lacks  the  terrifying 
aspects  of  nature,  and  mountains  and  lakes  merely  give 
variety,  beauty,  and  suggestion  to  the  landscape.  It  is 
difficult  to  imagine  Athenian  culture  growing  up  any- 
where but  in  its  native  geographical  environment.  The 
founders  of  the  great  monotheistic  religions  of  the  world- 
Zoroaster,  Moses,  Christ,  and  Mohammed — belonged  to  the 
semi-tropical  and  desert  zones.  Here  the  thinker  is  im- 
pressed with  the  oneness  of  nature,  by  the  vast  expanse  of 
land  and  sea  and  sky.  On  the  other  hand,  a  people  dwell- 
ing in  a  more  varied  environment  of  forest,  stream,  and  hill 
tend  toward  polytheism.  Trees  are  the  homes  of  spirits 
and  satyrs,  while  streams  become  peopled  with  nymphs  and 
mermaids. 

Climatic  Influences. — Physical  environment  sets  cli- 
matic limitations  to  human  habitation.  Life  in  the  Arctic 
regions  is  hard,  and  natural  selection  plays  havoc  Tempera- 
among  fur  hunters  and  gold  seekers.  Until  ture< 
recent  times  the  tropics  have  been  fatal  to  the  white  man; 
but  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  disease  and  of 
methods  of  sanitation,  as  illustrated  in  the  work  of  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone,  is  making  possible  a  Caucasian  con- 
quest of  the  tropics.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the 
temperate  latitudes  seem  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  an  advanced  civilization.  The  heat  belt,  which 
was  the  seat  of  many  ancient  cultures,  has  contributed 
little  to  human  advancement  in  the  last  thousand  years. 
That  civilization  has  advanced  from  the  south  to  the 
north,  as  much  as  from  the  east  to  the  west,  is  seen 
in  the  successive  rise  of  empires  from  ancient  Egypt  to 
modern  Britain.  As  man  has  become  more  civilized,  he 


20 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


has  been  able  to  cope  with  a  colder  and  moister  climate. 
A  moderate  rainfall  is  just  as  important  as  a  temperate 

climate.  Too  heavy  a  precipitation  is  favorable  only  to 
tropical  forest  and  swamp.  Too  slight  a  rain- 
fall means  aridity,  and  the  pastoral  industry  is 

the  one  most  possible  because  grass  is  the  chief  kind  of 

vegetation.    That  population  is  scanty  in  dry  regions  may 


Rainfall. 


THE  BLEAK  COAST  OF  MAINE 

be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  two  maps,  the  one  showing  the 
distribution  of  rainfall  and  the  other  of  population.  Com- 
pare the  population  of  our  western  states  with  that  along 
either  coast,  or  the  population  of  Arabia  with  that  of  India. 
There  is  an  interesting  explanation  of  the  historical  move- 
ments of  peoples  into  Europe.  According  to  this  theory, 


The  Influence  of  the  Physical  Environment  21 

the  original  home  of  the  Aryan  race,  having  dried  up  be- 
cause of  climatic  changes,  was  no  longer  capable  of  sup- 
porting so  large  a  population.  Hence  the  various  waves  of 
migration  and  invasion  which  swept  from  the  grass  lands 
of  western  Asia  into  Europe. 

Local  and  temporary  climatic  changes  are  called  the 
weather.  Clear  cool  weather  is  invigorating,  while  damp- 
ness and  high  humidity  are  both  depressing  and  The 
enervating.  These  effects  are  revealed  by  vary-  weather- 
ing  degrees  of  efficiency  among  employees  and  by  the 
conduct  of  school  children.  Dry  windy  weather  stimulates 
the  nervous  system  and  vitalizes  human  energy.  This  often 
finds  expression  in  increased  efficiency  or  in  greater  freedom 
of  movement.  The  effect  of  the  change  of  seasons  may  also 
be  seen  in  the  records  of  crime.  Crime  against  property, 
like  burglary,  increases  in  winter,  while  crime  against  per- 
son, like  murder,  increases  in  spring  and  summer. 

From  this  discussion  it  must  be  evident  that  an  under- 
standing of  social  movements  is  conditioned  upon  a  knowl- 
edge of  physical  environment.  This  environ-  The  c<m- 
ment  is  continually  manifesting  itself  in  various  ' 
phases  of  social  development.  Its  influence  is  felt  in  the 
economic,  the  political,  and  the  social  currents  of  American 
life.  For  example,  the  economic  greatness  of  America  is 
the  direct  outcome  of  its  almost  boundless  resources  and 
its  great  variety  of  climate  and  temperature.  Again,  the 
political  unity  of  American  society  is  largely  the  result  of 
its  broad  prairie  lands  and  the  prevailing  trend  of  its 
mountain  systems.  Had  its  mountains  extended  directly 
from  east  to  west,  it  is  doubtful  whether  one  civilization 
could  have  prevailed  over  sectional  differences.  On  the 
social  side,  America's  liberal  ideas  in  various  fields  of 


22  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

activity  are  largely  the  result  of  the  great  sweep  of  the 
continent,  of  the  accessibility  of  its  shores,  and  of  the  ease 
with  which  new  ideas  are  disseminated  throughout  the  land. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Show  how  some  plants  and  animals  are  adapted  to  their 
physical  environment. 

2.  Give  some  illustrations  of  the  effect  of  natural  resources  upon 
the  occupations  and  life  of  a  people. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  rivers  in  opening  up  a  country? 

4.  Give  original  illustrations  from  American   history   of   this 
principle. 

5.  Illustrate  the  effect  on  civilization  of  nearness  to  the  sea. 

6.  Name  in  order  of  importance  several  natural  barriers. 

7.  Name  a  good  and  a  bad  result  of  natural  geographical  isolation. 
Illustrate  your  answer. 

8.  Name  and  illustrate  the  various  ways  that  physical  environ- 
ment may  affect  the  form  of  government. 

9.  How  are  social  institutions  affected  by  natural  conditions? 
10.  Explain  the  theory  of  the  effect  of  natural  environment  upon 

the  cultural  and  religious  ideas  of  a  race. 

n.  Can  you  think  of  any  objection  to  the  above  theory? 

12.  What  are  the  two  natural  elements  in  climate?     State  the 
effects  of  each. 

13.  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that  the  earliest  civilizations 
were  in  warm  countries  and  the  modern  great  nations  in  temperate 
lands? 

14.  How  does  rainfall  affect  density  of  population? 

15.  What  theory  accounts  for  migrations  such  as  that  which  led 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire? 

1 6.  Illustrate  from  your  own  experience  the  effects  of  the  weather. 

17.  Sum  up  the  influence  of  nature  upon  American  civilization. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  fertile  river  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates. 

2.  The  Rhine   and   Danube  rivers  as  waterways  for  invasion > 
civilization,  and  commerce. 


The  Influence  of  the  Physical  Environment  23 

3.  Effects  of  the  insularity  of  England. 

4.  The  Alps  and  the  history  of  Italy. 

5.  The  Allegheny  Mountains  as  an  early  barrier  to  civilization. 

6.  Climatic  influences  upon  crime. 

7.  The  conquest  of  the  tropics  by  medical  science. 

REFERENCES 

CHAPIN,  F.  S.    Social  Evolution.     Chapter  V. 

DEXTER,  E.  G.     Weather  Influences. 

HAYES,  E.  C.    Introduction  to  a  Study  of  Sociology.    Chapter  III. 

HUNTINGTON,  E.     Pulse  of  Asia.      Civilization  and  Climate. 

KELSEY,  C.    Physical  Basis  of  Society.    Chapter  I. 

SEMPLE,  E.     Influences  of  Geographical  Environment. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.    Source  Book  for  Social  Origins.    Part  I. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SOCIAL  ENVIRONMENT 

I.  The  burden  of  tradition 

1 .  The  social  environment 

2.  Origin  of  folkways 

3.  Some  survivals 

4.  Varying  customs 

5.  The  widening  circle: 

a.  Through  conquest 

b.  Through  revolution 
II.  Other  social  forces 

1.  Imitation 

2.  Fashion 

III.  How  the  crowd  acts 

1.  Influence  of  suggestion 

2.  Characteristics  of  the  crowd 

3.  Importance  of  social  control 

4.  America's  position 

The  Burden  of  Tradition. — The  atmosphere  of  custom 

into  which  every  child  is  born  is  fully  as  important  as  the 

physical  environment  of  which  we  spoke  in  the 

The  social       "    J 

environ-  preceding  chapter.  The  social  environment  sur- 
rounds us  as  completely  as  the  physical.  In  our 
study  of  social  phenomena,  we  must  take  into  consideration 
not  only  the  influence  of  nature,  but  also  that  of  our  fellow 
men,  both  in  the  past  and  in  the  present.  Tradition 
envelopes  us  like  a  cloud,  unconsciously  determining  for  us 
almost  everything  we  do,  from  the  language  we  speak  to 
the  dress  we  wear.  Individuality  is  limited  and  represents 

24 


The  Influence  of  the  Social  Environment  25 

but  a  slight  variation  from  the  customs  of  the  group.  We 
take  almost  everything  as  we  find  it  and  accept  the  group 
traditions  from  democracy  to  base-ball.  We  regard  other 
social  systems  as  inferior  to  our  own,  just  as  their  followers 
look  upon  ours  in  the  same  light.  Thus,  the  Japanese,  who 
place  the  duty  of  the  son  to  the  father  on  a  higher  plane 
than  his  duty  to  his  wife,  regard  their  moral  codes  as 
superior  to  our  moral  and  religious  systems.  As  the  child 
learns  the  mother  tongue,  so  he  imbibes  the  customs  and 
moral  ideas  of  the  group,  regarding  them  finally  as  his  own. 
The  individual  mind  is  but  a  part  of  the  group  mind. 

Because  custom  plays  such  an  important  part  in  group 
life,  it  is  well  to  inquire  into  its  origin.  After  long  and  crude 
experimentation,  primitive  man  arrived  at  a  origin  of 
useful  invention  or  a  successful  method  of  doing  j 
a  thing.  This  particular  method  was  imitated  by  the  rest 
of  the  group  and,  unconsciously  or  consciously,  became  the 
customary  method  or  folkway.  After  centuries  of  uniform 
action,  the  constant  repetition  of  this  particular  method 
made  it  as  binding  upon  the  group  as  habit  is  upon  the 
individual.  For  illustration,  a  way  of  building  a  canoe  was 
hit  upon  by  some  individual  and  followed  by  the  rest  of 
the  group.  It  satisfied  a  social  want  and  for  a  long  time  no 
further  discoveries  in  boat  building  were  made.  That  par- 
ticular type  of  canoe  became  the  model  for  the  group,  and 
other  types  were  regarded  with  suspicion.  Thus,  the  group 
tends  to  develop  certain  customary  ways  of  doing  things 
which  become  fixed  and  binding  upon  all  the  individuals  in 
the  group.  In  this  manner  loyalty  to  the  group  is  judged 
by  conformity  to  its  customs  and  traditions.  Innovations 
are  frowned  upon  and  further  progress  hampered,  until 
the  group  civilization  becomes  static  or  even  stagnant. 


26  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Again,  folkways  often  originate  from  false  inferences.  An 
Eskimo,  who  happened  to  have  the  bone  of  a  dog  with  him 
upon  the  hunt,  was  successful  in  an  undertaking.  Primi- 
tive man  does  not  reason  logically,  but  draws  a  conclusion 
by  the  most  direct  inference.  Hence,  in  his  mind,  the  hunt 
was  successful  because  the  hunter  had  carried  with  him  a 
dog's  bone.  Others  imitated,  a  custom  grew  up,  and  be- 
came a  folkway  among  these  people. 

This  is  comparable  to  the  ignorant  man  of  to-day,  who 
ascribes  luck  to  a  horse  shoe  or  to  a  rabbit's  foot.  Indeed, 
Some  the  source  of  most  of  our  modern  superstitions 

survivals.      goes  back  to  a  benef  m  spirits  and  to  the  folk- 

ways of  our  untutored  ancestors.  Hallowe'en  is  a  night  of 
frolic  and  pleasure,  but  the  origin  of  this  holiday  was  the 
serious  business  of  appeasing  the  evil  spirits  according  to 
the  charms  and  rituals  prescribed  by  the  folkways  of  the 
group.  If  asked  the  reason  for  any  particular  ceremony  or 
procedure,  the  answer  was:  "Our  fathers  did  this  before 
us."  Fear  of  the  displeasure  of  dead  ancestors  was  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  any  innovation.  The  scope  of  the  folk- 
ways ranges  from  the  regulation  way  of  making  a  fire  to 
the  tribal  laws  of  royal  succession.  No  study  of  a  society 
would  be  complete  without  some  mention  of  them  because 
they  reflect  the  life  and  thought  of  the  group  as  well  as  the 
influence  of  environment.  Tradition  is  an  important  and 
significant  phase  of  the  social  or  group  mind  crystallized 
into  what  Bagehot  calls  "a  cake  of  custom." 

Each  group  thinks  its  own  folkways  right  and  laughs  at 
the  customs  of  the  foreigner.  We  think  it  impolite  to 
Varying  make  a  noise  while  eating,  but  the  Indian  would 

customs.  t()  h 


as  a  sign  that  the  meal  had  been  enjoyed.    The  Christian 


The  Influence  of  the  Social  Environment  27 

takes  off  his  hat  in  church,  but  the  Mohammedan  his  shoes. 
Our  moral  ideas  are,  strictly  speaking,  not  our  own,  but 
rather  those  of  the  group  in  which  we  live.  We  look  with 
horror  upon  the  Eskimos  whom  we  have  described  as  killing 
their  aged  parents,  but  they  regard  such  action  as  a  serious 
moral  duty  when  old  and  infirm  people  become  a  burden  to 
the  group.  We  have  been  taught  toleration  and  sympathy, 
but  had  we  lived  some  centuries  ago,  we  should  have 
rejoiced  at  the  burning  of  heretics  and  thought  that 
such  sacrifices  pleased  God. 

Each  group,  therefore,  has  its  own  collection  of  folkways 
and  moral  ideas  which  it  believes  to  be  the  best  and  the 
truest.    Thus  the  "cake  of  custom"  is  hard  to 
break.    It  may  be  done,  however,  by  forces  from   ing  circle?  " 


within  or  by  forces  from  without,  by  internal 
revolution  or  by  foreign  conquest.  In  other 
words,  tradition  may  be  broken  by  changes  in  environment. 
In  the  past  the  method  of  conquest  has  been  the  more  com- 
mon. Each  group  cherishes  its  own  folkways  so  highly  as 
to  be  willing  to  fight  for  them.  It  will  resist  to  the  last 
ditch  the  invading  "  barbarians"  or  will  seek  to  spread  by 
force  of  arms  its  own  civilization.  Thus  Alexander  the 
Great  spread  Grecian  civilization  in  the  East,  and  the 
patient  Roman  soldier  carried  the  Latin  tongue  and  culture 
from  the  Tiber  to  the  Thames.  So  to-day  our  own  genera- 
tion witnessed  the  titanic  struggle  between  the  advocates 
of  Teutonic  "Kultur"  and  the  proponents  of  Anglo-Saxon 
liberalism.  Often,  however,  the  civilizations  of  invader 
and  invaded  fuse  and  a  resulting  culture  is  imposed 
upon  each. 

Internal  revolutions  are  violent  changes  in  the  folkways, 
which  are  shattered  in  favor  of  more  liberal  ideas.    It  is 


28  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

difficult,  however,  to  force  such  a  change.  Peter  the  Great 
found  trouble  in  westernizing  Russia,  while  the  French  Rev- 
Tkrough  olution  resulted  in  frightful  carnage  and  vandal- 

revolution.         jsm        jn  Qur  Qwn  ^^   ^   Russian  Revolution 

is  an  heroic  attempt  to  shatter  centuries  of  crystallized 
ideas  and  traditions.  By  the  bloody  path  of  war  and  revo- 
lution, history  has  progressed  and  modern  man  has  become 
heir  to  the  culture  of  all  ages  and  civilizations.  Knowledge 
of  other  cultures  should  rid  him  of  group  provincialism, 
while  liberal  education  should  free  mankind  from  the  bonds 
of  superstition  and  ignorant  worship  of  tradition. 

Other  Social  Forces. — We  have  seen  how  imitation  has 

worked  as  a  conservative  force  to  preserve  the  folkways  of 

the  fathers.    It  may  also  work  as  a  progressive 

Imitation.  ,   . 

force  to  spread  inventions  and  new  ideas  when 
once  originated.  The  lajvs  of  imitation  were  first  studied  by 
a  Frenchman  named  Gabriel  Tarde  who  was  puzzled  by  the 
repetition  of  certain  crimes.  Among  other  laws  he  found 
that  imitation  is  greater  in  a  densely  populated  region  where 
means  of  communication  are  good.  Thus,  a  new  Parisian 
style  of  hat  or  a  new  English  novel  may  be  found  almost 
immediately  in  American  homes.  News  of  war  with  Japan, 
however,  took  a  long  time  to  spread  throughout  the 
thinly  populated  and  remote  parts  of  Siberia. 

Fashion  represents  the  changing  or  transient  aspect  of  the 
social  mind,  just  as  folkways  or  custom  represent  its  per- 
manent side.    Fashion  does  not  show  a  steady 

Fashion. 

progress,  but  rather  a  series  of  cycles.  Thus  the 
short  sleeve  succeeds  the  long  sleeve,  and  the  furniture  of 
our  grandfather  once  relegated  to  the  attic  has  again 
become  fashionable.  The  origin  of  style  seems  to  lie  in  the 
instinctive  desire  for  personal  adornment  and  the  wish  to 


The  Influence  of  the  Social  Environment  29 

be  distinguished  from  the  common  crowd.  Thus  Occidental 
ladies  pierce  their  ears,  and  Orientals  their  noses.  Another 
law  of  imitation  is  that  the  masses  tend  to  copy  after  the 
classes.  Therefore,  fashions  represent  the  lesiure  class  ideals 
rather  than  those  of  work  and  service.  The  Chinese  ladies 
bind  their  feet  and  thereby  become  incapacitated  for 
degrading  physical  labor.  A  style  spreads  rapidly  until  it 
becomes  common.  Then  it  is  abandoned  by  its  sponsors 
because  of  numerous  imitations.  It  is  necessary  for  the 
safety  of  democracy  to  suppress  the  extravagant  fashions 
of  the  wealthy  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  stimulate  the 
development  of  practical  folkways  and  social  customs 
among  the  masses. 

How  the  Crowd  Acts. — Suggestion  is  a  phase  of  the 
social  mind  associated  with  imitation.  It  is  one  mind 
acting  upon  another.  Like  imitation,  it  increases  . 

-  .      .  .      .       Influence 

with  the  degree  of  association,   so  that  it  is   ofsug- 

..,..,,        gestion. 

greater  in  crowds  than  among  a  few  individuals. 
Suggestion  is  the  secret  of  hypnotism' and  of  many  supposed 
miracles  like  those  of  the  Hindoo  fakirs.  It  is  heightened 
by  abnormal  states  of  mind,  such  as  hysteria,  or  the  fatigue 
brought  on  by  continuous  fasting.  It  is  stronger  where 
there  is  a  lack  of  scientific  knowledge.  The  prophet  Mo- 
hammed, the  dreamer  of  dreams,  saw  a  vision  which  he 
communicated  to  the  ignorant  and  emotional  Arabs  among 
whom  he  lived.  As  the  story  spread,  it  gained  credence 
from  an  increasing  number  of  believers,  so  that  Islam 
finally  spread  from  Persia  to  the  Pyrenees.  Children  are 
more  susceptible  to  suggestion  than  adults,  and  the  skillful 
teacher  realizes  the  power  and  danger  of  this  device.  It  is 
the  secret  of  hero  worship,  and  often  the  source  of  power 
wielded  by  the  leader  over  the  credulous  multitude. 


30  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

It  is  in  the  crowd  that  the  power  of  suggestion  is  greatest. 

Thus,  during  the  Great  Plague  in  London,  when  heaps  of 

dead  bodies  lay  in  the  street  accentuating  the 

Character- 
istics of         terror  and  imagination  of  the  crowd,  heighten- 

the  crowd.       .  °  ..  , 

ing  the  power  of  suggestion,  Defoe  tells  us  how 
one  individual  pointed  to  a  white  cloud  in  the  sky,  calling  it 
an  angel  and  declaring  that  it  was  robed  in  white  and 
armed  with  a  sword.  Immediately,  by  suggestion,  the 
illusion  spread  and  all  believed  and  were  afraid.  The 
credulity  of  a  crowd  is  incredible.  History  furnishes  num- 
erous examples,  such  as  the  preaching  of  Peter  the  Hermit, 
when  thousands  followed  the  example  of  those  around  them 
and  shouted  for  the  sign  of  the  Cross.  Like  a  contagion, 
the  crusading  movement  spread.  Another  characteristic 
of  the  crowd  is  the  loss  of  a  sense  of  individual  responsi- 
bility. In  a  mob  the  individual  can  be  led  on  to  undreamed 
of  deeds  of  violence,  such  as  the  lynching  or  burning  of 
innocent  or  untried  victims.  The  excitement  and  emotional- 
ism of  the  crowd  may  be  seen  in  war  times  as  well  as  in 
great  religious  revivals.  The  crowd  feels  and  acts,  but  it 
cannot  deliberate  and  reason.  When  it  does  so,  it  ceases 
to  be  a  crowd  and  becomes  a  deliberative  assembly.  The 
crowd  is  unstable  and  cannot  last.  Rallying  quickly  around 
anyone  capable  of  temporary  leadership,  it  will  disappear 
after  the  crisis  as  quickly  as  it  was  formed.  A  final  char- 
acteristic of  a  crowd  is  its  fickleness.  On  one  occasion  it 
will  cry,  "Hosanna  in  the  Highest"  and,  on  another, 
"Crucify  Him,  Crucify  Him!" 

By  a  process  of  education  it  is  necessary  to  build  up  an 
individuality  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  influence  of 
the  crowd  and  the  magic  of  its  demagogue  leader.  The 
sensational  newspaper,  which  prints  the  harrowing  details 


The  Influence  of  the  Social  Environment  31 

of  crime,  wields  a  sinister  power  of  suggestion  to  further 
crime.  Social  control  can  be  developed  only  through  the 
avoidance  of  sensationalism  and  through  a  con-  . 

.  °  Importance 

structive  program  of  sane  teaching,  intellectual  of  social 
self-possession,  and  the  creation  of  the  feeling  of 
responsibility.  An  intelligent  public  opinion,  which  soberly 
discusses  questions  of  the  day,  is  the  sole  hope  of  a  democ- 
racy. It  represents  the  most  advanced  stage  of  the  social 
mind,  just  as  the  mob  is  the  lowest  form  of  association. 
Social  control  is  the  collective  or  group  mind,  uninfluenced 
by  the  magic  of  suggestion  or  the  blindness  of  imitation, 
intelligently  cognizant  of  a  course  of  action  best  suited  to 
the  welfare  of  the  group.  A  society,  free  but  incapable  of 
self-control,  brought  about  the  excesses  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  On  the  other  hand,  a  society  kept  in  order  by  the 
iron  hand  of  autocracy  had  its  Bastille  or  its  Siberia.  The 
aim  of  social  progress  is  the  development  of  a  group  capa- 
ble of  controlling  itself  in  peace,  liberty,  and  intelligence. 
This  is  the  problem  of  social  control. 

It  is  interesting  to  examine  the  problem  of  social  control 
in  American  democracy.  Just  as  the  United  States  is 
characterized  on  the  physical  side  by  varied  and  America's 
almost  boundless  natural  resources,  so  the  pos 
nation,  on  its  social  side,  is  distinguished  by  freedom  from 
age-long  restrictions  upon  national  habits  of  thought.  In 
other  words,  America,  unlike  most  European  civilizations, 
is  not  unduly  hampered  by  worn-out  national  traditions. 
It  is  true  we  have  our  democratic  traditions  transplanted 
from  England,  our  Federal  Constitution,  and  our  own  in- 
digenous Monroe  Doctrine.  But,  as  compared  with  other 
world  powers,  America  lacks  the  countless  fixed  ideas  and 
customs  that  so  largely  determine  the  actions  of  older 


32  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

civilizations.  For  this  very  reason,  the  problem  of  social 
control  is  fraught  with  grave  difficulties  and  dangers  in 
America.  We  can,  therefore,  easily  understand  why  so 
many  "newfangled"  ideas  in  all  lines — political,  economic, 
and  social — take  root  so  easily  in  this  country.  What 
America  needs  more  than  anything  else,  in  order  to  accom- 
plish a  sound  policy  of  social  control,  is  the  establishment 
of  some  stabilizing  influences  in  harmony  with  our  national 
aspirations. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  folkways? 

2.  How  do  they  arise? 

3.  What  come  out  of  folkways? 

4.  Why  is  a  study  of  a  nation's  folkways  important? 

5.  Trace  to  their  origin  some  superstitions  of  to-day? 

6.  What  is  the  social  environment? 

7.  Show  its  moulding  power  upon  the  individual. 

8.  Show  how  the  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  vary  with  different 
groups. 

9.  Is   the   standard   of  morality   determined   by    the   group? 
Illustrate. 

10.  How  are  local  customs  broken  and  how  do  new  ideas  spread? 

11.  How  are  civilized  man's  customs  superior  to  those  of  savages? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  cake  of  custom  "?  By  the  "  melting  pot " 
of  civilization? 

13.  Give  some  laws  of  imitation. 

14.  Contrast  fashion  and  custom. 

15.  Show  by  illustration  how  fashion  moves  in  cycles. 

16.  Show  the  danger  of  having  our  ideals  and  fashions  set  by  a 
moneyed  leisure  class. 

17.  What  is  the  social  mind? 

18.  Show  how  suggestion  works. 

19.  Under  what  circumstances  can  suggestion  be  seen  to  best 
advantage? 

20.  Name  the  characteristics  of  a  crowd. 

21.  How  can  the  mob  spirit  be  avoided? 


The  Influence  of  the  Social  Environment  33 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Some  American  customs  and  national  traditions. 

2.  An  interpretation  of  the  customs  of  some  primitive  people. 

3.  The  attempt  of  European  nations  to  civilize  their  colonial 
possessions,  i.  e.,  to  impose  a  different  set  of  folkways  upon  them. 

4.  The  French  Revolution  and  social  changes. 

5.  Tarde's  "Laws  of  Imitation." 

6.  Conflicting  ideas  of  beauty  and  dress  in  different  parts  of  the 
world. 

7.  Laws  of  fashion. 

8.  A  personal  experience  illustrating  principles  of  mob  psychology. 

9.  Personal  experiences  illustrating  power  of  suggestion. 

REFERENCES 

BAGEHOT,  W.    Physics  and  Politics. 

CHAPIN,  F.  S.    Social  Evolution.    Chapter  VI. 

Ross,  E.  A.    Social  Psychology,     Chapters  II  to  VI  inclusive. 

Ross,  E.  A.    Social  Control. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Principles  of  Sociology. 

SUMNER,  WM.  G.    Folkways.     Chapters  I  and  II. 


CHAPTER  IV 

EARLY  GROUP  LIFE 

I.  Social  evolution 

1.  The  antiquity  of  man 

2.  The  forces  at  work: 

a.  Competition— struggle  for  existence 

b.  Natural  selection 

c.  Cooperation 
II.  Life  of  primitive  man 

1 .  Sources  of  knowledge 

2.  Neanderthal  man 

3.  Early  characteristics 
III.  Achievements  of  the  past 

1 .  The  process  of  invention 

2.  Examples: 

a.  Tools  and  implements 

b.  Discovery  of  fire 

c.  Domestication  of  animals 

d.  Agriculture 

e.  Clothing 
/.   Language 

3.  Development  of  social  institutions 

Having  examined  the  effects  of  both  the  physical  and 
the  social  environment  upon  the  institutions  of  society  in 
general,  it  is  now  our  purpose  to  trace  briefly  the  early  his- 
tory of  group  life  and  its  gradual  development  into  that 
commanding  institution  known  as  the  State.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  undertake  this  study  in  order  to  grasp  clearly  the 

34 


Early  Group  Life  35 

origin  of  the  American  State  and  the  forces  that  lie  back  of 
our  political,  economic,  and  social  development. 

Social  Evolution. — The  human  species  is  old,  and  the 
thread  of  its  history  carries  us  far  back  into  the  dim  past. 
The  prehistoric  period  of  mankind  is  many  Th 
times  as  long  as  the  historic.  If  we  let  the  antiquity 
width  of  a  man's  thumb  represent  the  time  that 
has  elapsed  between  the  present  and  the  grey  dawn  of  his- 
tory as  told  by  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  the  length  of  a  walk- 
ing stick  might  well  represent  the  age  of  the  human  species. 
A  line  to  represent  the  age  of  the  earth's  crust,  which  is 
roughly  speaking  the  period  of  biological  evolution,  would 
stretch  a  distance  of  several  city  squares.  Professor  Robin- 
son makes  a  similar  comparison,  using  the  dial  of  a  clock 
to  show  the  length  of  the  prehistoric  period.  Biological 
evolution  is  the  story  of  the  development  of  life  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher  forms,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 
Social  evolution  is  the  story  of  the  development  of  group 
life  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  wandering 
tribes  of  hunters  of  centuries  ago  to  the  highly  organized 
industrial  states  of  to-day. 

The  twin  forces  of  competition  and  cooperation  can  be 
seen  at  work  to-day,  even  as  in  the  past,  not  only  in  human 
society,  but  in  the  lower  forms  of  life.     Both  Forces  at 
forces  have  played  important  parts  in  social  and  J^ork: 

Competition— 

biological  evolution.    Let  us  see  what  they  are.  struggle  for 

.  .          .  ..existence 

The  world  of  nature  is  only  apparently  calm  and 
peaceful.  Underneath  the  supposed  contentment  there 
rages  a  ceaseless  struggle  for  food,  air,  sunshine,  and  space. 
If  every  acorn  grew  to  be  an  oak,  the  dry  land  of  this 
world,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hundred  years,  would  not  be 
sufficient  space  for  the  growth  of  all  the  oak  trees.  For 


36  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

every  starfish  living,  nearly  half  a  million  die  annually. 
Millions  perish  and  countless  numbers  must  be  born  in 
order  to  insure  the  perpetuity  of  the  species.  The  fact  that 
the  struggle  for  existence  is  keenest  in  the  lower  forms  of 
life  explains  their  greater  productivity.  It  is  necessary  for 
survival. 

In  the  struggle  for  existence,  in  which  the  great  majority 
of  organisms  perish,  some  survive.  The  stronger  and  those 
Natural  better  adapted  to  their  environment  survive, 
selection.  W^Q  ^  weaker  ancj  unfit  are  eliminated.  This 

is  called  natural  selection  or  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  Out 
of  the  numerous  variations  or  types,  nature  selects  the 
organisms  having  the  qualities  most  favorable  to  survival 
in  a  particular  environment.  Natural  selection  may  be  seen 
working  among  colonists  in  a  strange  land  of  rigorous 
climate  in  which  only  the  hardiest  can  survive.  The  func- 
tion of  natural  selection  is  to  weed  out  the  unfit  or  the 
poorly  adapted,  and  thus  constantly  to  raise  the  type  or 
adapt  it  to  the  environment.  The  old  mastodons,  whose 
skeletons  we  find  in  museums,  were  fitted  to  the  marshy 
environments  of  thousands  of  years  ago.  Failing  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  new  environment,  they  perished.  In  his 
early  history,  man  won  out  in  the  fiercest  struggle  for 
existence  because  of  his  superior  intelligence,  which  enabled 
him  to  trap  and  slay  the  larger  animals  among  which  he 
lived.  Competition  was  a  factor  in  social  as  well  as  in 
biological  evolution,  for  there  was  a  constant  struggle  be- 
tween groups.  History  is  strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  past 
civilizations  and  archaic  institutions.  Cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions dug  up  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  tell  a  morbid 
tale  of  centuries  of  war  between  rival  city-states,  each  with 
its  own  set  of  folkways  and  deities.  Again,  competition 


Early  Group  Life  37 

operated  within  the  group  as  well  as  between  groups. 
Leaders  competed  against  other  leaders,  class  against  class, 
and  folkways  against  folkways.  To-day,  natural  selection 
still  operates  in  the  form  of  competition  between  individuals 
and  groups  of  individuals.  Although  within  civilized 
groups,  few  perish  from  starvation  or  are  ruthlessly  killed 
by  their  fellows,  yet  many  are  forced  into  the  lower  or 
poverty  classes  in  society.  Artificial  regulations,  like  the 
laws  of  property  and  of  inheritance,  often  prevent  many 
individuals  from  actually  facing  this  fierce  struggle  in 
society. 

Opposed  to  the  emphasis  laid  upon  the  principle  of  the 
struggle  for  existence  in  the  development  of  man,  is  the  im- 
portance of  the  idea  of  cooperation  in  bringing  Coopcra- 
about  social  advancement.  The  advocates  of  tion- 
this  principle  object  to  the  idea  of  a  cold  hearted  struggle 
for  existence  and  substitute,  or  rather  add,  the  principle  of 
altruism  or  the  struggle  for  the  lives  of  others.  There  are 
many  evidences  of  this  force  at  work  in  society.  For  ex- 
ample, as  we  ascend  the  scale  of  life,  the  period  of  infancy 
becomes  longer  and  maternal  care  more  necessary.  Fish 
merely  deposit  their  eggs  and  leave  them  to  their  fate; 
but  a  higher  type,  the  mother  bird,  not  only  hatches  her 
eggs,  but  also  watches  over  her  young  fledglings.  The 
period  of  human  infancy  lasts  for  many  years,  and  the 
increased  maternal  care  is  the  source  of  altruism  and  of 
much  that  is  spiritual  and  sympathetic  in  the  human 
breast.  Thus,  the  source  of  altruism  is  the  rearing  of  off- 
spring, and  the  resulting  family  group  is  the  generator  of 
cooperation.  But  the  struggle  for  existence  is  not  elimi- 
nated by  cooperation.  This  force  makes  competition  a 
group  struggle  rather  than  an  individual  one.  It  is  a 


38  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

superior  adaptation  and  enables  one  group,  possessing 
greater  social  solidarity,  to  compete  more  successfully 
against  another  group,  not  so  well  organized.  Remarkable 
cooperation  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  lower  forms  of  life, 
as  for  illustration  among  bees  and  ants.  Wild  horses  live 
in  herds  and  thus  protect  themselves  against  the  wolves. 
At  the  signal  of  danger,  the  colts  are  gathered  in  the  center, 
the  horses  surround  them  and  present  a  ring  of  kicking 
hind-legs  to  the  foe. 

Life  of  Primitive  Man. — Having  sketched  the  twin 
forces  of  competition  and  cooperation,  which  have  been 
Sources  of  constantly  operating  throughout  the  ages,  let 
knowledge.  us  ^  now  j.Q  picture  primitive  man  and  his 

early  group  life.  Fossil  remains  of  primitive  man  afford 
good  evidence  of  his  appearance.  Likewise,  a  knowledge  of 
his  early  environment  furnishes  additional  evidence  of  his 
life  and  activity.  Finally,  primitive  races  of  to-day  show 
us  what  our  own  ancestors  were  like  centuries  ago.  From 
these  three  lines  of  reasoning,  we  are  able  to  re-create  primi- 
tive man  in  our  imagination. 

Let  us  take,  for  illustration,  the  primitive  type  of  Nean- 
derthal man,  so  named  from  the  valley  in  Germany  where 
Neander-  his  remains  were  first  discovered.  Similar  dis- 
thaiman.  COveries  have  since  been  made  in  caves  from 
France  to  Hungary,  and  we  infer  that  Neanderthal  man 
was  a  common  type  centuries  ago  in  Europe.  Skeletons  of 
the  mammoth  and  woolly  rhinoceros  found  with  him  seem 
to  show  that  he  lived  in  the  great  Ice  Age.  There  have 
been  discovered  sufficient  of  his  own  bones  to  give  a  fairly 
good  description  of  this  early  man.  Neanderthal  man  was 
short  and  massive  in  structure  and  of  powerful  frame.  The 
thick  bones  show  large  muscle  attachments  and  we  infer 


Early  Group  Life  39 

that  he  was  therefore  strong  and  muscular.  He  must  have 
been  a  thick-necked  individual  carrying  his  head  tilted 
slightly  backward.  The  joints  show  that  he  walked  up- 
right with  a  slight  bend  at  the  knees.  Neanderthal  man  was 
just  becoming  accustomed  to  a  permanent  upright  posture 
and  walked  with  a  shuffling  gait.  Such  was  the  ancestor 
of  a  large  number  of  present  European  peoples. 

Fossil  remains  like  those  on  the  island  of  Java  show  a 
more  primitive  type.  On  the  other  hand,  skeletons  like 
the  Essex  woman  or  the  Galley  Hill  man  ap-  Early  char- 
proach  more  and  more  closely  our  own  type.  ; 
The  massive  jaws  and  teeth  of  primitive  man  indicate  that 
before  the  discovery  of  fire  his  diet  must  have  been  a  tough 
one.  The  large  and  powerful  arms  were  adapted  for 
climbing  to  escape  the  beasts  of  prey.  Huge  digestive 
organs  were  necessary  since  primitive  man  gorged  himself 
after  the  successful  hunt  because  it  might  be  a  long  time 
before  more  food  could  be  obtained. '  Tough  and  hardy,  the 
survivors  were  able  to  endure  the  pain  and  exposure  which 
killed  off  the  weaklings.  Although  possessing  great  natural 
powers  of  observation,  primitive  man's  reasoning  power 
was  limited  like  that  of  the  modern  savage.  He  was  a  good 
imitator,  however,  and  many  of  his  earliest  inventions  were 
copied  from  the  animal  world.  His  interpretation  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature  was  the  simplest  and  most  direct. 
The  running  brook  in  which  he  saw  his  own  shadow  or  other 
self  and  the  whistling  wind  were  to  him  indications  of  the 
numerous  spirits  always  hovering  about  him  for  good  or  ill. 

Achievements  of  the  Past. — The  accomplishments  of 
primitive  man  in  the  long  prehistoric  period  are  often  re- 
ferred to  as  social  origins.  They  are  good  illustrations  of 
both  mental  and  social  evolution,  since  they  show  the  in- 


40  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

creasing  power  of  human  intelligence  and  an  increasing 
degree  of  cooperation  in  group  activities. 

Such  a  strenuous  environment  as  that  in  which  primitive 
man  lived  was  fraught  with  constant  danger  and  calculated 
The  roces-  to  stmiulate  tne  development  of  mentality.  Man 
of  inven-  finally  triumphed  over  his  fierce  animal  rivals  by 
the  crude  inventions  of  his  dawning  intelligence. 
These  were  at  first  more  accidental  than  conscious,  although 
a  useful  device  was  remembered  and  imitated.  Finding 
that  a  tree  which  had  fallen  over  a  stream  was  an  excellent 
means  of  crossing,  primitive  man  imitated  in  other  places 
by  dragging  a  log  in  position  and  by  this  operation 
invented  the  first  bridge.  However,  the  achievements  of 
man  were  more  or  less  conscious  as  compared  with  those  of 
the  lower  animals,  like  the  nest-building  of  birds.  Early 
man  relied  more  upon  intelligence  than  upon  instinct. 
Again,  the  process  of  invention  was  accelerated  and  be- 
came more  conscious  as  early  civilization  advanced.  But 
the  great  purposive  inventions  of  to-day  rest  upon  the 
accidental  discoveries  of  prehistoric  tunes.  Thus  the 
modern  steam-engine  would  have  been  impossible  without 
the  discovery  of  fire,  somewhere  back  in  the  long-forgotten 
past.  The  twentieth  century  "  sky-scraper "  is  but  the 
latest  stage  in  the  evolution  of  housing,  which  began  long 
ages  ago  when  a  half  naked  savage  built  a  rude  shelter  for 
protection  from  the  wind  and  rain.  The  child  of  to-day  is 
the  heir  of  the  ages,  but  primitive  man  had  to  learn  every- 
thing from  the  beginning. 

Let  us  then  trace  a  few  of  the  most  notable  examples  of 
man's  primitive  achievements.  The  earliest  implements  in 
use  were  the  club  and  pointed  stick.  The  bow  and  arrow 
constituted  as  great  a  discovery  for  primitive  man  as  gun- 


Early  Group  Life 


PRIMITIVE  MAN  MAKING  A  FIRE 

Courtesy  of  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York 


42  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

powder  for  the  men  of  the  modern  world.  Man  learned  to 
work  in  stone  and  to  chip  it  down  to  form  a  cutting  edge. 
Exam  les-  Thus  we  speak  of  the  rough  stone  age  and  of  the 
Tools  and  age  of  polished  stone  which  covered  long  years  of 

implements.  ,  .          •      .  •  T.    •          i  -.LI  • 

prehistoric  tune.  It  is  only  within  a  compara- 
tively recent  period  that  we  reach  the  age  of  bronze  and, 
finally,  that  of  iron  and  steel. 

The  discovery  of  fire  made  cooking  possible.  Primitive 
man,  like  many  savages  to-day,  was  accustomed  to  raw 
Discovery  food.  The  Fuegians,  for  example,  often  eat  their 
fish  raw  as  they  take  them  from  the  water.  How 
fire  was  discovered  is  unknown,  but  many  legends,  like  that 
of  Prometheus,  seek  to  explain  its  origin.  It  made  possible 
the  camp  fire  for  the  center  of  tribal  life,  and  the  hearth 
fire  for  family  gatherings. 

Primitive  man  slowly  learned  that  it  was  poor  policy  to  kill 
more  game  than  was  actually  necessary.  By  keeping  some 
Domestica  anmials  d&vz  in  captivity,  there  was  created  a 
tion  of  constant  source  of  food,  and  man  was  no  longer 

animals. 

dependent  merely  upon  the  chances  of  the  hunt. 
The  domestication  of  the  dog  resulted  probably  from  man's 
desire  for  company  and  amusement.  A  pastoral  life  necessi- 
tated wandering  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  new  fields. 
Hence,  for  the  safety  of  the  migratory  group,  there  was  de- 
veloped a  closer  organization  as  illustrated  by  the  patriarch 
Abraham  of  the  Old  Testament.  As  we  pass  from  the  him  ting 
andfishing  to  the  pastoral  stage,  a  higher  civilization  prevails. 
Agriculture  was  accidentally  discovered  through  the 
falling  of  seeds  upon  the  ground  of  the  camping  places. 
A  ricuiture  ^e  aS"cu^tura^  stage  represents  an  advance 
over  the  pastoral.  It  calls  for  a  more  settled 
life,  while  a  given  area  is  capable  of  supporting  a  larger 


Early  Group  Life  43 

population.  This  means  a  greater  degree  of  association, 
resulting  in  greater  division  of  labor  and  greater  mental 
stimulus.  Hence  the  thickly  settled  river  valleys  of  the 
Nile,  and  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  were  the  birthplaces 
of  civilization. 

Clothing  did  not  originate  so  much  from  the  feeling  of 
modesty,  or  from  the  need  of  climatic  protection,  as  from 
the  desire  for  personal  adornment  and  visible 
distinction.    At  first  the  skins  of  animals  served 
as  a  covering,  but  later  came  the  utilization  of  the  native 
fibres  of  the  various  localities.     Weaving  and  the  art  of 
pottery  are  good  illustrations  of  woman's  share  in  primitive 
culture. 

Although  speech  is  regarded  as  a  purely  human  acquisi- 
tion, the  lower  animals  have  certain  sounds  and  cries 
familiar  to  their  fellows.  The  origin  of  human 
speech  has  been  explained  by  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent and  fanciful  theories.  Whatever  the  origin,  its 
progress  has  been  wonderful.  The  increasing  ideas  and 
needs  of  civilization  have  resulted  in  a  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  vocabulary.  There  are  some  savage  tribes  of 
to-day  whose  language  embraces  but  a  few  hundred  words. 
In  comparatively  recent  times,  the  device  of  writing  was 
invented.  The  first  attempts  are  known  as  picture  writing. 
This  was  succeeded  by  the  use  of  characters  to  represent 
words  or  syllables,  as  is  shown  in  the  development  of 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  Finally,  an  alphabet  was  invented, 
later  carried  to  Europe  by  Phoenician  mariners,  and  thence 
spread  all  over  the  western  civilized  world. 

The  material  inventions  of  primitive  man  make  a  fasci- 
nating story,  but  represent  only  one  phase  of  social  evolu- 
tion. The  gradual  development  of  social  institutions  is 


44  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

equally  important.  Social  institutions  may  be  denned  as 
those  recognized  customs,  conventions,  and  associations 

which  have  the  support  and  approval  of  society. 

There  are  also  other  forms  of  association  not 
sStu&ons.  sanctioned  by  society,  arising  sporadically  and 

lacking  in  permanency.  If  the  individual  takes 
part  in  these  non-sanctioned  forms  of  association,  he 
incurs  the  displeasure  of  society  and  often  becomes  a  social 
outcast.  Therefore,  every  normal  member  of  society  seeks 
activities  and  associations  approved  by  the  society  in  which 
he  lives.  After  the  lapse  of  ages,  these  forms  of  association 
and  ideas  of  living  become  crystallized  into  social  institu- 
tions. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  social  institutions 
vary  in  different  parts  of  the  world  and  in  different  stages 
of  human  development.  Among  the  great  social  institu- 
tions of  to-day  are  the  family,  the  state,  the  church,  the 
school,  and  industrial  society.  The  source  of  these  funda- 
mental social  institutions  lies  far  back  in  the  prehistoric 
period.  In  moulding  them  natural  selection  produced  dis- 
similar results  in  various  places  and  times.  Different  ages 
and  different  peoples  adapted  them  to  their  particular 
physical  and  social  environments. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Compare  the  length  of  historic  with  prehistoric  times. 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  social  evolution? 

3.  Explain  the  part  played  by  the  struggle  for  existence  in  early 
society. 

4.  Show  how  natural  selection  worked  in  primitive  times. 

5.  Explain  the  part  played  by  cooperation  in  social  evolution. 

6 .  Can  altruism  threaten  the  future  progress  of  society?    Explain. 

7.  Sketch  the  life  and  characteristics  of  primitive  man. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  chief  contrasts  with  modern  traits? 


Early  Group  Life  45 

9.  What  was  the  appearance  of  Neanderthal  man? 

10.  Discuss  the  process  of  primitive  invention. 

11.  Give  some  of  the  achievements  of  primitive  man. 

12.  Which  of  these  do  you  regard  as  most  important  for  his  future 
progress?     Give  reasons. 

13.  What  is  a  social  institution?     Name  the  principal  ones. 

14.  Do  you  regard  the  material  achievements  or  the  social  insti- 
tutions as  early  man's  greatest  contribution  to  civilization?     Why? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Competition  and  cooperation  in  economic  society  to-day. 

2.  The  Darwinian  theory  of  evolution. 

3.  Fossil  remains  of  prehistoric  man  in  Europe. 

4.  Cooperation  or  mutual  aid  among  the  lower  forms  of  life. 

5.  The  discovery  of  fire  and  its  importance. 

6.  Theories  of  the  origin  of  language. 

7.  Intelligence  -versus  instinct  in  early  life. 

REFERENCES 

CHAPIN,  F.  S.    Social  Evolution.    Chapters  II  and  III. 

DRUMMOND,  H.    Ascent  of  Man. 

HAYES,  E.  C.    Introduction  to  a  Study  of  Sociology.     Chapters  XVII 

and  XVIII. 

KELSEY,  C.     Physical  Basis  of  Society.     Chapters  II-V  inclusive. 
OSBORN,  H.  F.    Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age. 
ROBINSON,  J.  H.     The  Mind  in  the  Making. 

SOLLAS,  W.  J.     Ancient  Hunters  and  Their  Modern  Representatives. 
THOMAS,  W.  I.    Source  Book  of  Social  Origins. 
WELLS,  H.  G.     The  Outline  of  History.    Vol.  L 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  STATE 

I.  Nature  and  origin  of  the  state 

1.  Definition 

2.  Origin: 

a.  Fanciful  theories 

b.  The  sociological  view 
II.  Functions  of  the  state 

1.  Primary 

2.  Secondary 

III.  Stages  of  development 

1.  The  patriarchal  family 

2.  The  gens  or  clan 

3.  The  tribe 

4.  The  city-state 

5.  The  nation 

IV.  Institutions  related  to  the  state 

1.  Nature  of  war: 

a.  Causes 

b.  Results 

2.  Rise  of  slavery 

3.  Development  of  law  and  property 

Nature  and  Origin  of  the  State. — The  State  is  one 
of  the  oldest  and  most  commanding  institutions  of  society. 

It  is  a  society  organized  politically  for  the  pur- 
Definition. 

pose  of  preserving  the  group  and  of  protecting 

the  individuals  composing  it.   We  may  define  the  State  as 

46 


The  Evolution  of  the  State  47 

a  community  of  people  inhabiting  a  definite  area,  fairly 
well  unified  under  some  sort  of  government,  and  ruled  by 
officials  under  a  body  of  written  law  or  in  accordance  with 
unwritten  custom.  Its  purpose  is  social  control  for  the 
common  good  through  organized  cooperation. 

The  origin  of  the  State  is  difficult  to  trace  because  of  its 
divergent  roots  and  because  of  the  numerous  fanciful 
theories  that  obscure  its  early  history.  Almost  Ori  in. 
every  people  has  its  tradition  of  an  ancient  law-  Fanciful 
giver,  like  the  Greek  Draco  or  the  Roman  Numa. 
These  wise  men,  if  they  ever  really  existed,  did  not  give  to 
the  people  by  divine  inspiration  a  new  and  brilliant  code  of 
laws,  but  merely  collected  and  put  into  written  form  the 
customs  and  traditions  of  many  generations.  Each  nation 
looks  back  to  some  mythical  hero,  claiming  him  as  its 
founder.  Thus  Rome  had  its  Romulus,  and  England  its 
Arthur.  Later  in  history  appeared  the  Divine  Right 
theory  of  the  State  by  which  kingship  was  viewed,  not  as  a 
political  development,  but  as  a  divinely  ordained  institu- 
tion. Under  this  view  the  Church  and  the  State  could  not 
be  easily  separated.  The  English  Stuarts  claimed  their 
power  from  God,  and  in  France  so  absolute  was  this  type 
of  government  that  Louis  XIV could  say,  "I  am  the  State''. 
This  view  of  the  State  was  followed  by  the  Social  Con- 
tract theory  of  such  philosophers  as  Hobbes,  Locke,  and 
Rousseau.  It  was  claimed  by  these  writers  that  man- 
kind originally  lived  in  a  state  of  nature  characterized 
by  war,  confusion,  and  individual  liberty.  In  order  to 
secure  protection,  the  people  voluntarily  surrendered 
this  natural  liberty  to  some  chief  whom  they  selected  to 
rule  over  them  in  order  that  they  might  enjoy  peace  and 
civil  liberty. 


48  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  foregoing  theories  were  the  products  of  tradition, 
or  of  a  speculative  philosophy,  or  of  the  desire  to  justify 
The  sodo-  despotic  rule.  The  true  origin  of  the  State,  how- 
kgicai  view.  eve^  js  not  to  be  founci  fn  such  simple  explana- 
tions. Its  basis  lies  in  man's  social  instinct,  that  is,  in  his 
inherent  desire  for  the  companionship  of  group  life.  An- 
other factor  is  the  principle  of  cooperation,  which  developed 
group  solidarity  in  the  conflict  with  other  peoples.  Slowly 
there  developed  from  early  family  life  the  beginnings  of  the 
modern  State.  It  was  a  gradual  development  of  political 
control  made  necessary  by  the  attempts  of  men  to  live 
together  harmoniously  within  a  given  area.  As  the  patri- 
archal family  expanded,  there  was,  however,  no  conscious 
effort  to  build  up  a  State.  Custom  unconsciously  developed 
into  law,  and  the  patriarch  into  king.  War,  since  it  re- 
quired organization  for  successful  prosecution,  furthered 
the  evolution  of  the  State.  The  temporary  leader  in  battle 
tended  to  become  the  permanent  chief.  Again,  in  times  of 
peace,  the  enforcement  of  group  folkways  and  customs 
made  authority  necessary.  This  authority  was  more  re- 
ligious than  political,  but  in  primitive  society  there  was 
little  differentiation  between  Church  and  State. 

Functions  of  the  State.— The  primary  function  of  the 
State  is  to  protect  its  members  in  the  enjoyment  of  their 
Primary  rights  of  life  and  property .  As  we  have  seen,  this 
functions.  wag  Qne  reason  for  jts  origjn>  \vhen  the  State  can 

no  longer  afford  protection  from  foreign  attack,  it  ceases  to 
exist  and  confusion  reigns.  The  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire 
was  succeeded  by  feudalism,  and  the  individual  looked  to  his 
nearest  and  most  powerful  lord  for  protection.  Internally 
the  function  of  the  State  is  to  preserve  the  social  order 
that  is,  to  protect  each  member  of  society  in  the  enjoyment 


The  Evolution  of  the  State  49 

of  his  rights.  It  must  hold  in  check  the  unsocial  individual 
who  would  infringe  upon  the  privileges  of  others.  Thus 
the  State  is  the  guardian  of  property  and  regulates  its  trans- 
fer and  inheritance.  It  seeks  to  define  crime  and  also  to 
punish  it  by  the  administration  of  justice  in  its  courts. 

With  the  decline  of  the  functions  of  the  early  family,  the 
power  and  activity  of  the  State  have  increased.  The 
modern  ruler,  taking  the  place  of  the  patriarchal  secondary 
father,  governs  a  great  community  stretching  functions' 
over  an  enormous  area.  The  function  of  protection  ex- 
pands into  diverse  forms  of  which  our  early  ancestors  had 
no  conception.  Thus,  the  State  now  regulates  trade  and 
industry,  coins  money,  establishes  standards  of  measure, 
and  formulates  tariffs.  The  regulation  of  transportation, 
of  the  public  health,  and  of  sanitation  has  come  within  its 
jurisdiction  as  well  as  the  control  of  education  which  for- 
merly rested  with  the  Church  or  the  school.  Lastly  has 
come  the  care  of  defectives  and  dependents,  for  whom  little 
systematic  provision  was  formerly  made.  With  the  growth 
of  industry  and  the  increase  of  population,  the  modern 
State  has  become  almost  paternalistic.  Thus  the  functions 
and  powers  of  the  State  have  increased  with  the  growing 
culture  of  society.  The  ideal  of  citizenship  is  becoming 
that  of  social  service. 

Stages  of  Development. — The  two  roots  of  the  State 
lie  in  kinship  or  blood-relationship  and  in  the  institution  of 
private  property.    The  State  grew  up  with  the   Tfae  patri_ 
development  of  the  idea  of  private  property,  for   archai 
whose  protection  government  came  into  exist- 
ence.    Kinship  is  the  other  basis  of  the  State,  for  the 
patriarchal  family  expanded  into  the  gens,  the  phratry,  the 
tribe,  and  finally  the  nation.    The  primitive  social  group  or 
E 


50  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

" horde,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was  composed  of  sev- 
eral family  groups,  the  patriarchal  family  being  much 
larger  than  the  modern  one.  The  family  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word  includes  merely  the  parents  and  off- 
spring, for  to-day  when  each  son  marries,  he  is  regarded  as 
forming  another  family.  In  former  days,  however,  he  did 
not  escape  his  original  family  jurisdiction,  but  merely 
brought  his  wife  into  his  father's  household.  The  patri- 
archal father  ruled  over  all  his  sons,  their  wives,  and  their 
sons'  families.  The  oldest  surviving  male  was  head  of  this 
large  patriarchal  family.  He  was  judge,  high  priest,  and 
ruler,  often  possessing  power  of  life  and  death  over  his 
little  community.  He  was  the  custodian  of  the  folkways 
or  unwritten  law  and  the  administrator  of  justice  and  of 
religious  sacrifices.  After  death,  he  was  deified  by  the 
ceremony  of  ancestor  worship. 

'  The  family  expanded  in  numbers  not  only  by  natural 
increase,  but  also  by  adoption  or  fictitious  kinship.  A 
The  gens  stranger  might  be  brought  into  the  group  and, 
for  clan-  after  going  through  a  ceremony  of  initiation,  was 
regarded  as  a  true  member  of  the  family  into  which  he  had 
been  adopted.  Thus  the  patriarchal  family  expanded  into 
a  larger  group  called  the  gens  or  clan.  This  was  a  union 
of  several  families  who  possessed  the  same  religious  cere- 
monies and  beliefs.  Thus,  the  binding  social  tie  expanded 
from  kinship  into  common  religion.  The  heads  of  the 
gentes  or  clans  became  officers  of  some  importance.  By 
further  expansion,  a  union  of  several  gentes  or  clans  was 
called  curia  by  the  Romans  or  phratry  by  the  Greeks.  The 
purpose  now  became  more  political  than  religious.  Cover- 
ing a  greater  area,  the  new  group  contained  the  germs  of 
local  government.  The  first  Roman  assembly  sat  accord- 


The  Evolution  of  the  State  51 

ing  to  curiae,  which  have  been  likened  to  the  wards  of  a 
modern  city.  We  can  observe  this  process  among  the 
Iroquois  Indians  who  formed  a  federation  of  six  tribes. 
Each  tribe  was  divided  into  two  phratries,  each  of  which 
was  subdivided  into  several  clans  named  after  various 
animals.  There  were,  for  example,  the  clans  of  the  wolf, 
bear,  and  turtle. 

More  important  than  either  the  clan  or  the  phratry  is 
the  larger  unit  called  the  tribe  which  often  represents  the 
group  as  a  whole.  Among  many  peoples  the 
development  of  the  State  never  gets  beyond  the 
tribal  stage.  The  Iroquois  Indians,  by  a  federation  of 
tribes,  were  beginning  to  develop  a  nation  when  the  white 
man  appeared.  The  chief  purpose  of  tribal  organization 
is  to  secure  cooperation  in  war.  A  capable  chief  or  war 
leader  is  generally  chosen  from  the  heads  of  the  clans.  In 
many  cases  the  phratry  does  not  seem  to  be  so  important, 
although  the  custom  varies  with  different  peoples.  The 
chief  leads  all  the  clans  in  war  and  in  times  of  peace  acts  as 
presiding  officer  or  judge.  As  the  group  organization  perfects 
itself,  the  chief  becomes  king.  His  office  tends  to  become 
hereditary  and  his  power  despotic  so  long  as  war  continues. 

The  most  ancient  type  of  the  nation  is  that  which  we 
call  the  city-state,  so  well  illustrated  by  early  Rome  and 
by  the  small  independent  communities  of  an-   The  city- 
cient   Greece.     These  were  often  based  upon    ! 
tribal  units.     Early  Rome,  for  example,  was  made  up  of 
three  tribes,  each  consisting  of  ten  curiae.    The  early  city- 
states  were  very  small,  consisting  merely  of  a  single  walled 
town  and  the  surrounding  territory.    Each  was  an  inde- 
pendent self-governing  community,  making  war,  negotiat- 
ing peace,  and  demanding  allegiance  from  its  citizens. 


52  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  early  city-state  expanded  into  the  nation  by  the 
process  of  war  through  the  struggle  of  one  city-state  against 
The  another,  and  the  incorporation  of  the  con- 

quered by  the  conquerors.  An  economic  factor 
of  the  conquest  lay  in  the  desire  for  booty,  or  the  more 
modern  desire  for  commercial  expansion.  The  successful 
nation  became  constantly  larger  by  devouring  its  rivals. 
The  field  of  history  is  strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  conquered 
civilizations,  like  those  of  Troy,  Etruria,  and  Carthage. 
While  this  process  of  external  expansion  is  going  on,  there 
is  taking  place  internally  the  differentiation  of  political 
organs  and  functions  such  as  is  found  in  the  modern  State. 
Church  and  State  tend  to  separate,  while  the  government 
divides  itself  into  the  executive,  the  legislative,  and  the 
judicial.  Separate  institutions  like  senate,  assemblies  and 
courts  appear.  The  trend  of  development  is  not  always 
toward  a  greater  degree  of  democracy,  because  men  are 
often  willing  to  live  under  a  despotism  which  protects  their 
lives  and  their  property.  As  Aristotle  has  pointed  out,  a 
frequent  cycle  of  political  change  is  from  monarchy  to  aris- 
tocracy, and  from  aristocracy  to  tyranny.  When  the  rule 
of  the  tyrant  becomes  unbearable,  the  tyranny  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  democracy  which,  upon  becoming  corrupt  or 
inefficient,  gives  place  once  more  to  monarchy. 

Institutions  Related  to  the  State.— The  process  of 
war  brought  about  the  amalgamation  of  the  State.  In  the 
Nature  patriarchal  days  each  family  avenged  a  wrong 
of  war:  done  to  one  of  its  members.  In  a  later  stage  of 
political  development,  the  warfare  was  carried 
on  between  tribes.  In  modern  times  war  is  waged  between 
nations  or  between  groups  of  nations.  With  the  growth  of 
the  political  unit,  the  area  affected  has  become  constantly 


The  Evolution  of  the  State  53 

larger.  War  may  be  regarded  as  the  group  phase  of  the 
struggle  for  existence.  As  population  increases  and  presses 
upon  food  supply,  the  group  tends  to  expand  territorially. 
This  necessity  for  expansion  brings  the  group  into  conflict 
with  its  neighbors,  and  war  results.  Besides  this  economic 
factor,  racial  antagonism  and  the  clash  of  cultures  or 
religions  are  potent  causes  of  war.  Man's  primitive  in- 
stincts are  easily  aroused,  and  the  havoc  of  conflict  is  too 
apparent  to  need  mention.  War  to-day  is  often  regarded 
as  an  anachronism,  a  relic  of  the  primitive  days  of  bar- 
barism. The  economic  stakes  for  which  it  is  waged  fre- 
quently fade  into  insignificance  when  compared  with  the 
loss  of  property  involved.  The  appalling  loss  of  life  is 
often  in  vain,  for,  unfortunately,  right  is  not  always 
victorious. 

Nevertheless,  so  long  as  man's  primitive  instincts  re- 
main, war  represents  a  modern  survival  of  the  struggle  for 
existence.  War,  too,  often  stimulates  the  hardy 
virtues  of  a  decaying  people.  It  develops 
patriotism  and  may  serve  the  purpose  of  moral  regeneration. 
Another  good  result  of  war  has  been  the  development  of  a 
higher  degree  of  social  organization,  for  conflict  made  group 
solidarity  necessary.  Government  often  arose  around  some 
competent  leader  who  led  his  people  to  victory  or  safety. 
Thus  the  lawgiver  Moses  led  the  children  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt,  guided  them  during  their  period  of  war  and  migra- 
tion, and  around  him  crystallized  the  slowly  forming 
nation.  The  dangers  of  war  tend  to  make  the  ruler's  power 
more  autocratic,  and  kingship  developed  in  Judea  after 
the  long  wars  with  neighboring  peoples.  Past  wars  have 
brought  about  the  breaking  of  the  "cake  of  custom"  by  a 
cross  fertilization  of  cultures.  Captive  Greece  conquered, 


54  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

by  her  civilization,  the  victorious  Romans.  War  formerly 
resulted  also  in  the  formation  of  social  classes,  for  the  con- 
querors often  held  the  conquered  as  slaves  or  as  a  subject 
class,  like  the  Helots  of  the  Spartans.  In  England  there 
existed  for  a  century  a  great  gulf  between  the  upper  class 
Norman  nobles  and  the  lower  class  conquered  Saxons. 
This  situation  is  aptly  described  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
fascinating  tale  of  Ivanhoe. 

Thus  the  institution  of  slavery  developed  with  war.  The 
lives  of  the  conquered  were  spared  in  order  that  they  might 
Rise  of  relieve  the  conquerors  of  the  burden  of  monoto- 
siavery.  n(>us  labor.  Because  of  the  creation  of  a  slave 
population,  industry  ceased  to  be  the  lot  of  women,  as  was 
the  custom  during  the  savage  or  hunting  stage.  Slavery 
disciplined  a  large  part  of  mankind  to  habits  of  steady 
work  and  enabled  the  conquerors  to  live  a  life  of  leisure. 
The  cultures  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  products  of  slave 
civilizations.  Slavery  has  been  common  in  the  past  and  has 
been  justified  by  the  folkways  and  moral  standards  of  the 
group  practicing  it.  Gradually  the  lot  of  the  slave  im- 
proved, until  the  final  disappearance  of  this  institution 
from  civilized  society. 

Laws,  as  we  have  seen,  originated  in  folkways  and  un- 
written customs,  which  were  later  codified  into  legal  sys- 
tems by  able  statesmen.  They  reflect  group 
mentof"  standards  of  conduct, — moral  adjustments  of 
pa™Pe?&.  society.  The  rise  of  the  State  and  the  progress 
of  law  are  parallel  developments.  One  reason 
for  the  existence  of  law  is  the  protection  of  the  individual 
in  his  rights  of  property.  Among  primitive  peoples  the 
only  recognized  private  property  is  a  personal  possession, 
such  as  a  weapon  or  a  bodily  ornament.  The  belongings  of 


The  Evolution  of  the  State  55 

another  are  respected  merely  out  of  regard  for,  or  from  fear 
of,  the  owner.  The  institution  of  private  property  grad- 
ually develops  as  the  group  mind,  or  public  opinion,  con- 
siders property  rights  as  distinct  from  the  individual 
himself.  The  enforcing  of  justice  upon  the  thief  is  then  no 
longer  an  individual  matter  of  the  aggrieved  party,  but 
becomes  a  group  function  for  which  the  State  comes  into 
existence.  Primitive  people  are  generally  more  or  less 
communistic.  Hunting  grounds  belong  to  the  group,  not 
to  the  individual.  The  Australian  native,  for  example, 
regards  the  game  he  kills  as  belonging  to  others  besides 
himself,  and  explicit  rules  for  its  disposition  are  found  in 
the  folkways.  Individual  rights  are  difficult  for  most 
savages  to  understand.  The  growth  of  civilization,  how- 
ever, has  been  marked  by  the  development  of  the  idea  of 
individual  property  rights  as  distinct  from  primitive  savage 
communism. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Give  a  brief  definition  of  the  State  as  an  institution  of  society. 

2.  What  are  the  elements  necessary? 

3.  Name  three  theories  of  the  State. 

4.  Explain  each. 

5.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  State  in  human  instinct? 

6.  Show  the  role  of  cooperation. 

7.  Explain  the  idea  of  evolution  as  applied  to  the  development  of 
the  State. 

8.  What  made  authority  necessary  in  times  of  war? 

9.  In  peace? 

10.  What  is  the  primary  function  of  the  State? 

11.  When  does  feudalism  arise? 

12.  Can  you  give  any  illustration  of  feudalism  other  than  medieval 
Europe? 

13.  Name  some  other  functions  of  the  State. 

14.  Show  how  its  sphere  of  activity  has  grown. 


56  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

15.  Give  a  description  of  the  patriarchal  family  as  a  unit  of 
government. 

1 6.  Explain  the  clan  and  the  phratry. 

17.  What  were  the  differences  between  them? 

1 8.  Give  the  organization  of  the  Iroquois  Indians. 

19.  Discuss  the  tribal  stage  of  political  development. 

20.  Define  and  illustrate  the  city-state. 

21.  Show  the  process  by  which  nations  developed  from  small 
city-states. 

22.  Illustrate  the  growth  of  political  institutions  and  the  develop- 
ment of  separate  organs  of  government. 

23.  How  does  this  illustrate  the  evolutionary  principle  of  develop- 
ment from  the  simple  to  the  complex? 

24.  Give  Aristotle's  cycle  of  government. 

25.  Give  some  good  results  of  war  in  the  past. 

26.  Give  two  good  results  of  slavery  in  the  past. 

27.  Do  you  think  our  Southern  slave  holders  believed  the  institu- 
tition  to  be  just?    Why? 

28.  What  are  the  two  roots  of  the  State? 

29.  Trace  the  development  of  the  idea  of  private  property. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  city-state  of  the  Greeks. 

2.  The  clans  of  ancient  Rome. 

3.  Slavery  among  the  ancients. 

4.  The  social  contract  theory  of  the  State. 

5.  History  of  the  theory  of  Divine  Right. 

6.  Communism. 

7.  The  abolition  of  war. 

REFERENCES 

BLACKMARANDGILLEN.  Outlines ofSociology.  Chapters  Vlland  VIII. 

DEALEY,  J.  Q.    Sociology.    Chapter  VI. 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.    Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems. 

FAIRBANKS,  A.    Introduction  to  Sociology.    Chapter  X. 

FOWLER,  W.  W.     The  City  State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

HAYES,  E.  C.    Introduction  to  a  Study  ofSociology.     Pages  5 1 9  to  53  8. 

WILSON,  W.    The  State.    Chapters  I  and  II. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  AMERICAN  STATE 

I.  The  original  thirteen  colonies 

1.  The  South: 

a.  Early  settlement 

b.  Social  life 

2.  New  England: 

a.  How  founded 

b.  Compared  with  the  South 

3.  Middle  colonies: 

a.  Their  origin 

b.  Another  element 

4.  Later  additions : 

a.  French  Huguenots 

b.  Scotch-Irish 

II.  The  new  nation  in  the  making 

1 .  Comparison  with  French  settlements 

2.  Comparison  with  Latin  America 

3.  Transplanted  ideas 

4.  Independence 

5.  Union 

The  evolution  of  the  State  as  a  social  institution  has  al- 
ready been  traced.  Let  us  now  make  a  particular  study  of 
the  American  State.  This  necessitates  a  consideration  of 
both  the  physical  heredity,  representing  our  racial  stock,  and 
also  the  social  heredity,  representing  the  ideas  and  ideals 
which  crossed  the  Atlantic  with  the  original  settlers.  Here 
again  is  the  problem  of  adjustment,  for  we  must  ask  our- 

57 


5 8  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

selves  constantly  how  the  new  environment  affected  both 
the  people  and  the  institutions  of  the  new  nation.  The 
European  background  of  American  history  is  most  impor- 
tant, for  it  holds  the  key  to  many  curious  turns  in  our 
colonial  history.  Again,  early  American  political  and  social 
institutions  were  patterned  after  those  of  the  mother 
country,  although  these  were  gradually  altered  in  the 
process  of  adjustment  to  new  conditions.  Thus,  starting 
with  the  same  English  traditions  of  local  government,  the 
southern  and  New  England  colonists  worked  out  two  dif- 
ferent systems  because  of  their  different  physical  environ- 
ments. 

The  Original  Thirteen  Colonies.— In  1607,  at  James- 
town, was  founded  the  first  permanent  English  colony  in 
America.    From  the  earliest  times  to  the  present 

The  South: 

Early  settle-  the  New  World  has  been  regarded  as  a  land  of 
boundless  possibilities.  The  first  English  colo- 
nists in  Virginia  expected  to  find  gold  and  precious  stones, 
and  to  return  wealthy  to  the  mother  land  by  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  New  World.  Instead,  death  and  starvation 
faced  them,  while  the  life  of  the  new  colony  hung  by  a 
thread.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco,  however,  gave  the 
South  a  permanent  industrial  basis.  The  nationality  of 
the  settlers  was  almost  purely  English,  but  of  the  most 
varied  character  and  social  condition.  After  the  execution 
of  Charles  I  and  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth, 
a  number  of  royalist  families  fled  to  Virginia  rather  than 
submit  to  political  conditions  at  home.  The  exodus  of  the 
cavaliers  to  the  New  World  is  responsible  for  such  names 
as  Washington,  Marshall,  Monroe  and  Madison  in  Amer- 
ican history.  Many  of  the  first  families  of  the  South  had 
their  roots  in  the  aristocracy  of  Old  England.  Many  also 


The  Origin  of  the  American  State  59 

were  sprung  from  the  country  gentry  and  from  the  middle 
class  who  came  to  America  to  escape  political  vexation  or 
to  recruit  a  failing  fortune.  The  lower  classes  also  sent 
their  quota.  Indentured  servants  came  over  at  the  rate 
of  a  thousand  a  year.  Kidnappers  smuggled  over  victims 
snatched  from  the  streets  of  London,  while  prisoners  were 
often  given  the  choice  between  the  gallows  and  the  New 
World.  Dr.  Johnson  considered  Americans  "a  race  of  con- 
victs" who  "  ought  to  be  content  with  anything  we  allow 
them  short  of  hanging."  This  comment  of  an  old  English 
pedant  should  be  remembered  by  the  descendants  of  these 
same  Americans,  not  because  of  its  inaccuracy,  but  rather 
to  prevent  ourselves  from  falling  into  a  similar  error  with 
regard  to  our  own  present-day  immigrants. 

The  founding  of  Georgia  by  Oglethorpe  as  an  asylum  for 
debtors  languishing  in  English  prisons  should  be  interesting 
to  the  student  of  social  problems.  The  cultiva- 

Social  life. 

tion  of  indigo  in  the  Carolmas  played  the  same 
role  as  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  Virginia.  Cotton  did 
not  become  king  in  the  South  until  after  the  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin.  Slavery  was  introduced  and,  as  in  Spanish 
America,  was  especially  suited  to  plantation  life.  A  broad 
and  fertile  land  made  agriculture  the  natural  industry, 
while  large  estates  developed  a  landed  aristocracy.  The 
home  of  the  planter  was  magnificently  located  upon  a  hill 
overlooking  a  river,  up  which  came  the  yearly  ship  from 
England  to  discharge  its  cargo  of  luxuries  and  to  receive 
its  crop  of  tobacco.  Living  at  a  distance  from  each  other, 
travellers  were  royally  entertained .  and  Southern  hospital- 
ity became  justly  famous.  The  county  system  of  local 
government,  instead  of  the  township,  was  the  natural 
political  development  of  a  widely  scattered  population 


60  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

engaged  in  agriculture.  The  established  church  was  the 
Anglican,  and  the  form  of  Colonial  government  was  that 
of  a  royal  or  crown  colony. 

Plymouth  Rock  is  still  the  shrine  of  tourists,  for  here  in 
1620  landed  the  Pilgrim  fathers.     For  the  sake  of  con- 
science, they  sailed  the  stormy  Atlantic  and  en- 
England:       dured  the  bleak  shores  of  New  England.     In 
HOW  founded.  ^^  old  homej  State  and  church  were  united 

and  the  Anglican  form  of  worship  was  obligatory.    After  a 


EARLY  PILGRIMS  GOING  TO  CHURCH 

brief  stay  in  Holland,  the  Pilgrims  were  granted  the  right 
to  settle  in  America  where  they  could  worship  God  as  they 
pleased.  The  Restoration  in  1660,  and  the  persecutions  of 
Archbishop  Laud,  drove  to  the  New  World  thousands  more 
of  dissenting  Puritans.  In  this  great  exodus  several  regi- 
cides took  refuge.  Virginia  had  been  the  Mecca  for  royal- 
ists for  whom,  a  short  time  before,  the  parliamentary  Com- 
monwealth had  become  unsafe.  New  England,  after  the 


The  Origin  of  the  American  State 


61 


restoration  of  the  Stuart  king,  became  the  haven  for  the 
adherents  of  the  " Roundhead"  party. 

Like  the  Virginians,  the  early  settlers  of  New  England 
were  purely  of  English  stock,  but  of  very  different  char- 
acter.   We  have  spoken  already  of  the  political   Compared 
and  religious  differences  between  them.     The   -with  the 

South. 

cavalier  type  in  the  South  was  merry  and  pleas- 
ure loving,  while  the  New  England  Puritan  was  grave  and 
stern.    Roisterers,  gossips,  and  Sabbath  breakers  were  pun- 


MODERN  "PILGRIMS"  COMING  TO  AMERICA 

ished.  In  America  to-day,  the  Puritan  traditions  of  the 
Sabbath  still  linger  in  spite  of  the  broadening  spirit  of 
the  twentieth  century.  The  climate,  the  hilly  nature  of 
the  land  and  the  fear  of  the  Indians  prevented  agriculture 
from  developing  into  the  plantation  system.  For  the  same 
reasons,  the  township  system  of  local  government  devel- 


62  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

oped  with  its  school  and  meeting  house.  Here  the  colonists 
enjoyed,  for  a  time  at  least,  the  privileges  of  a  charter 
form  of  government.  Self-government  became  a  passion 
with  the  Puritan,  who  fought  for  freedom  from  the  days  of 
the  Boston  tea-party  to  the  time  of  the  abolition  move- 
ment against  slavery.  Puritan  blood  has  sometimes  been 
responsible  for  narrowness  and  bigotry  in  our  national  char- 
acter, but  it  has  always  been  willing  to  fight  for  a  cause 
that  it  believed  to  be  just. 

The  Middle  Colonies  had  a  rather  checkered  career  and 
their  origin,  unlike  that  of  the  other  two  sections,  was  not 
MI  purely  English.  Tracing  their  racial  heredity, 
colonies:  we  find  that  the  Dutch  were  the  first  to  settle 
Their  origin.  New  Amsterdam  as  a  trading  post  with  the  In- 
dians for  furs.  Their  line  stretched  from  Fort  Nassau  (now 
Gloucester,  N.  J.)  to  Fort  Orange  (now  Albany,  N.  Y.). 
Long  after  the  English  occupied  their  territory,  Dutch 
names  like  Schuyler,  Astor  and  Van  Rensselaer  continued 
to  appear  in  American  life.  The  customs  and  character- 
istics of  the  Knickerbockers  have  colored  New  York.  The 
Swedes  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  and  named 
Christiana  Creek  after  their  queen.  They  were  absorbed 
in  turn,  however,  by  the  Dutch  and  English.  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland  are  two  famous  examples  of  colonies 
founded  as  asylums  from  religious  persecutions.  The  for- 
mer was  founded  by  William  Penn  for  the  Quakers,  and 
the  latter  by  Lord  Baltimore  for  the  Roman  Catholics. 
Both  flourished  under  the  proprietary  form  of  colonial  gov- 
ernment, which  closely  resembled  the  feudal  society  of 
medieval  Europe.  Religious  liberty  characterized  the  Mid- 
dle Colonies.  This  toleration  affords  a  good  illustration  of 
the  liberalizing  effects  of  a  cross  fertilization  of  cultures. 


The  Origin  of  the  American  State  63 

The  Swedes  and  the  Dutch  lost  their  colonies  to  the 
English,  who  continued  to  migrate  to  America  in  large 
numbers.  A  new  element,  however,  was  found  Another 
in  a  large  wave  of  German  immigration  which  demenL 
began  to  pour  into  Pennsylvania  about  this  time.  William 
Penn  had  advertised  his  colony  in  a  pamphlet  directed  to 
the  oppressed  of  all  nations.  This  was  circulated  widely 
through  the  Palatinate  region  of  Germany.  There  the 
peasants  had  suffered  greatly  from  the  horrors  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  and  in  the  wars  with  Louis  XIV  of 
France.  Many  dissenting  Protestant  sects,  like  the  Dunk- 
ards  and  the  Mennonites,  sought  liberty  in  the  New  World. 
So  vast  was  this  alien  tide  that  it  was  feared  the  English 
would  be  outnumbered  by  the  German  population  that 
settled  the  rich  agricultural  valleys  of  Pennsylvania. 
Among  the  great  men  of  this  group  we  may  mention  Pastor- 
ius,  the  German  Quaker,  who  settled  Germantown,  Ritten- 
house,  the  mathematician,  and  the  patriot  Muhlenburg. 

Louis  XIV  of  France  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes  which 
had  granted  toleration  to  the  Protestant  Huguenots.  Under 
pain  of  conformity,  or  persecution,  this  enter- 
prising, industrial  class  of  French  citizens  fled  to    additions: 


Holland,  England,  and  America.    New  Rochelle, 
named   after   the   old  Huguenot  stronghold  in 
France,  was  founded  near  New  York.    South  Carolina  also 
had  a  sprinkling  of  this  immigration,  which  furnished  such 
names  in  American  history  as  Paul  Revere  and  John  Jay. 
Among  the  most  aggressive  of  our  early  settlers  were  the 
Scotch-Irish.     They  were  the  Protestant  Scotch,  mostly 
Presbyterians,  who  had  settled  northern  Ireland   The  Scotch- 
in  the  days  of  James  I.     Through  them  Ulster  Irish' 
became  a  great  industrial  center,  but  the  growing  linen  in- 


64  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

dustry  of  that  region  was  deliberately  killed  by  an  act  of 
the  English  Parliament.  Again,  conformity  to  the  estab- 
lished Anglican  church  was  necessary  to  the  enjoyment  of 
many  rights  of  citizenship.  Therefore,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  a  great  wave  of  Scotch-Irish  migra- 
tion to  America  took  place.  As  the  seacoast  was  already 
occupied,  they  settled  along  the  frontier  marked  by  the 
Allegheny  Mountains.  Their  line  stretched  from  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont,  through  central  Pennsylvania 
west  of  the  German  settlement,  and  down  through  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  into  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  The 
Scotch-Irish  were  of  that  pioneer  type  who  cleared  the 
forests  and  fought  back  the  Indians.  They  won  the  West 
for  a  later  generation  and  have  kept  alive  ideals  of  democ- 
racy. To  this  group  belong  many  illustrious  statesmen 
and  generals,  like  Patrick  Henry,  Andrew  Jackson,  and 
General  Grant. 

The  New  Nation  in  the  Making. — Such  were  the 
people  who  settled  the  thirteen  original  colonies.  Although 
other  elements  were  present  in  the  population, 
the  racial  heredity  of  the  new  people  was  chiefly 
Anglo-Saxon.  The  mountains,  as  well  as  the 
Indians,  proved  a  barrier  to  western  expansion, 
but  made  for  contiguity  of  settlement.  While  the  seacoast 
was  being  settled  by  the  English,  the  French  colonists  had 
entered  the  continent  by  the  great  water  ways  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi,  founding  such  distant  settle- 
ments as  Quebec  and  New  Orleans.  The  scattered  char- 
acter of  their  American  colonization  put  them  at  a 
disadvantage  in  the  war  fought  to  decide  whether  the 
continent  was  to  be  a  New  France  or  a  New  England. 
Again,  the  English  settlers  had  wives  and  families,  but  the 


The  Origin  of  the  American  State  65 

French  trappers  frequently  came  alone.  Often  they  took 
wives  from  among  the  natives,  and  the  purity  of  the 
Caucasian  stock  was  not  preserved. 

While  various  nations  were  striving  for  the  possession  of 
North  America,  Spanish  supremacy  in  the  south  seemed 
assured.  Not  only  all  of  South  America  but  also 
a  large  portion  of  southern  North  America  re-  so°nw?th" 
ceived  its  physical  and  social  heredity  from  America. 
Spain  and  Portugal.  To-day  Latin  America  is 
geographically  larger  than  Anglo-Saxon' America.  An  in- 
teresting contrast  is  here  afforded  in  both  heredity  and 
environment.  The  physical  environment  in  which  Latin 
American  culture  developed  is  that  of  a  warm  and  semi- 
tropical  climate.  Its  plant  and  animal  life  is  different,  and 
its  economic  history  has  consequently  taken  a  different 
course.  After  the  wild  search  for  gold  abated,  agriculture 
developed  under  the  plantation  system  which  was  accom- 
panied by  the  institution  of  slavery.  The  enslavement  of 
the  Indians  was  followed  by  the  importation  of  negroes 
from  Africa  upon  a  huge  scale.  Of  this  fact  the  negro  re- 
publics of  the  West  Indies  are  proof  to-day.  The  Indian 
population  was  relatively  larger  than  in  North  America, 
where  it  never  became  an  important  element  in  national 
life.  There  has  also  been  a  blending  of  the  three  races  in 
Latin  America  to  an  extent  unknown  in  Anglo-Saxon 
America. 

The  physical  environment  and  the  physical  heredity  of 
the  English  colonists  thus  differed  considerably  from  that 
of  their  neighbors.    Equally  striking  is  the  dif-   The  trang_ 
ference  in  the  social  heredity,  that  is,  in  the 
legacy  of  laws,  customs,  religious  and  political 
institutions.  Among  the  transplanted  ideas  which  crossed 


66  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  Atlantic  with  the  fathers  was  the  great  body  of  English 
common  law  which  had  grown  up  in  the  past  centuries  of 
English  history.  Again,  the  right  of  jury  trial  by  one's 
peers  was  distinctly  English,  as  compared  with  the  more 
arbitrary  court  procedure  of  Spain  and  France.  Absolute 
monarchy  was  then  in  vogue  upon  the  continent  of  Europe, 
but  the  English  colonists  had  behind  them  traditions  of 
constitutional  monarchy.  They  were  standing  also  upon 
such  great  foundation  stones  of  liberty  as  the  Magna 
Charta,  and  the  Petition  and  Bill  of  Rights.  The  colonists 
were  therefore  very  insistent  about  their  rights  as  English- 
men. Stormy  controversies  arose  between  the  various  pro- 
vincial governors  and  the  lower  houses  of  assembly.  As 
in  the  struggle  between  the  English  king  and  his  Parlia- 
ment, the  chief  interest  frequently  centered  about  the  con- 
trol over  the  purse  strings. 

The  English  colonies  received  far  more  liberal  treatment 
by  the  mother  country  than  those  of  France  and  Spain, 
indepen-  where  the  control  was  more  autocratic.  It  must 
dence.  ^Q  ^e  remembered  that  the  economic  phil- 
osophy of  the  eighteenth  century  regarded  colonies  not  as 
a  public  trust,  but  as  a  legitimate  source  of  profit.  Un- 
fortunately, even  to-day  this  idea  of  colonial  exploitation 
has  not  altogether  disappeared.  The  Anglo-Saxon  concept 
of  democracy  developed  even  more  rapidly  in  the  new  west- 
ern world  than  in  the  old  one.  "  No  taxation  without  repre- 
sentation" was  an  ideal  which  many  Englishmen  them- 
selves did  not  possess  in  those  days  of  "  rotten  boroughs." 
In  fact,  it  was  not  until  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  that  cer- 
tain large  English  cities  were  represented  in  the  British 
Parliament.  Some  far-seeing  statesmen,  like  Pitt  and 
Burke,  could  perceive  that  America  had  common  cause 


The  Origin  of  the  American  State  67 

with  the  unrepresented  groups  at  home.  Failing,  however, 
to  strike  a  responsive  chord  in  the  lethargic  England  of  the 
Hanoverian  dynasty,  the  Americans  changed  their  plea. 
They  ceased  to  speak  of  their  rights  as  Englishmen,  but 
spoke  of  their  rights  as  men.  The  works  of  such  eighteenth 
century  French  philosophers  as  Rousseau  had  crossed  the 
Atlantic  and  found  fertile  soil  in  the  New  World.  Thomas 
Jefferson,  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
was  a  great  student  of  the  social  contract  theorists  of 
whom  we  spoke  in  the  preceding  chapter.  He  defended  the 
right  of  revolution  as  a  natural  right  of  the  people,  when 
the  sovereign  had  broken  his  part  of  the  social  contract. 
With  the  successful  conclusion  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
the  emancipated  colonists  were  free  to  try  their  experi- 
ment of  an  independent  democracy. 

The  period  following  the  war  has  been  characterized  by 
John  Fiske  as  the  critical  period  in  American  his- 
tory. Decentralizing  tendencies  were  strong,  . 

U111OI1* 

but  finally  the  principle  of  union  triumphed  over 
that  of  sectionalism.  The  outcome  should  be  regarded  as 
a  gradual  evolution,  rather  than  as  the  sudden  work  of 
such  champions  of  nationalism  as  Madison  and  Hamilton. 
There  had  been  earlier  experiments  in  union,  like  the 
famous  New  England  Confederation.  The  nature  of  the 
country,  the  township  life,  and  the  fear  of  the  Indians 
served  to  bind  the  northern  settlements  together.  Small 
communities  had  grown  into  states,  and  now  the  states 
were  about  to  try  the  great  experiment  of  uniting  themselves 
into  a  nation.  The  French  and  Indian  War  had  stimulated 
among  the  colonists  a  sense  of  " consciousness  of  kind" 
against  the  common  foe.  The  Revolution  still  further  de- 
veloped this  growing  spirit  of  nationalism  by  such  institu- 


68  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tions  as  committees  of  correspondence.  An  immediate 
union,  however,  was  too  great  an  initial  step.  The  Articles 
of  Confederation  were  first  tried  and  found  wanting.  Their 
very  failure  paved  the  way  for  the  great  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, which  Gladstone  regarded  as  the  greatest  document 
ever  struck  off  within  a  given  time  by  the  hand  of  man. 
With  its  adoption,  the  new  nation  was  born. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Differentiate  between  physical  and  social  heredity. 

2 .  Illustrate  the  principle  of  natural  selection  from  early  America n 
history. 

3.  Show  the  process  of  adjustment  at  work  in  our  early  institu- 
tions. 

4.  Sketch  the  character  of  the  Virginia  settlers. 

5.  Compare  the  New  Englanders  with  the  Southerners. 

6.  Compare  the  different  institutions  of  the  two  regions. 

7.  What  non-English  peoples  settled  in  the  Middle  Colonies? 
Give  their  characteristics? 

8.  What  were  some  social  effects  of  this  mixture  of  races  ami 
creeds? 

9.  Give  the  motives  and  character  of  the  Huguenot  settlers. 

10.  Do  the  same  for  the  Scotch-Irish. 

11.  Where  did  each  of  the  non-English  groups  settle? 

12.  Give  the  descent  of  some  famous  Americans. 

13.  Compare  the  physical  environment  of  the  Spanish  and  English 
settlements. 

14.  Compare  the  social  heredity  of  the  two  groups. 

15.  What  were  some  of  the  political  institutions  which  the  colonists 
brought  with  them  from  England? 

1 6.  Why  was  Burke  sympathetic  toward  the  Americans? 

17.  Who  wrote  of  the  social  contract  theory?    What  was  it? 

1 8.  What  was  the  critical  period  of  American  history?    Why  was 
it  so  called? 

19.  How  and  why  did  nationalism  triumph  over  sectionalism? 

20.  Differentiate  between  federation  and  confederation. 


The  Origin  of  the  A  merican  State  69 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  importance  of  the  European  background  in  American 
history. 

2.  Geographical  environment  as  an  explanation  for  the  differences 
between  the  institutions  of  New  England  and  those  of  the  Southern 
colonies. 

3.  The  contribution  of  the  non-English  nationalities  to  the  life 
and  customs  of  the  Middle  Colonies. 

4.  The  Scotch-Irish  pioneer  in  American  history. 

5.  The  Mercantilists  and  eighteenth  century  colonial  policies. 

6.  Early  steps  toward  union  in  America. 

7.  The  influence  of  the  Latin  American  culture. 

REFERENCES 

CHEYNEY,  E.  P.     The  European  Background  of  American  History^ 
COMMONS,  J.  R.     Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 
MERRIAM,  C.  E.     A  History  of  American  Political  Theories. 
MORRIS,  H.  C.     A  History  of  Colonization. 
Ross,  E.  A.     Old  World  in  the  New. 
THWAITES,  R.  G.     The  Colonies. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  POLITICAL  MACHINERY 

I.  A  written  constitution 

1 .  Its  significance 

2.  Its  guarantees 
II.  Nation  and  state 

1.  Division  of  powers 

2.  Growth  of  concentration 

3.  National  problems 

4.  State  problems 
III.  Separation  of  powers 

1.  Legislative 

2.  Executive 

3.  Judicial 

4.  Checks  and  balances 

5.  Comparison  with  British  cabinet  system 

A  Written  Constitution. — Not  all  nations  have  written 
constitutions.  Although  a  written  constitution  generally 
its  signifi-  marks  a  milestone  along  the  road  of  political 
progress,  Great  Britain  is  an  illustration  of 
an  enlightened  democracy  with  an  unwritten  constitution. 
The  British  Parliament  may  repeal  an  act  and  pass  another 
in  its  place  which  then  becomes  the  law  of  the  land.  Al- 
though this  new  law  may  seem  to  encroach  upon  individual 
rights,  there  can  never  be  a  question  of  its  constitutionali ty. 
The  United  States,  however,  is  a  constitutional  democracy. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  the  final  authority  to  decide  whether 
or  not  a  given  law  is  a  violation  of  the  federal  constitution. 
If  so,  it  is  null  and  void.  Popular  opinion,  however,  may 

70 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  71 

sometimes  be  strong  enough  to  amend  the  written  constitu- 
tion. Although  there  are  four  possible  methods  of  amend- 
ing the  American  constitution,  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  has  been  amended  only  by  securing  a  two- 
thirds  vote  in  both  houses  of  Congress  and  by  the  later 
ratification  of  three-fourths  of  the  individual  states.  This 
is  a  tedious  process  and  scarcely  a  score  of  amendments 
have  been  ratified  since  the  adoption  of  the  federal  consti- 
tution. Many  economic  reforms  have  been  delayed  because 
of  the  barrier  of  the  constitutionality  of  a  proposed  law. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  method  of  amendment  has  pre- 
vented too  hasty  an  expression  of  public  opinion  in  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  land. 

How  far  are  life,  liberty,  and  property  secured  by  the 
federal  constitution?  In  order  to  secure  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution  and  to  appease  its  opponents,  its  guar- 
who  were  fearful  of  strong  government,  a  num-  ant 
ber  of  amendments  were  added.  These  safeguards  have 
been  termed  the  American  Bill  of  Rights.  They  include 
among  other  things  such  fundamental  guarantees  as  re- 
ligious freedom,  jury  trial,  freedom  of  speech  and  the  press, 
and  the  protection  of  person  and  home.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  these  are  restrictions  upon  the  na- 
tional government  and  do  not  apply  to  the  states.  Most 
of  the  state  constitutions  have  similar  safeguards  for  the 
liberty  and  protection  of  their  own  citizens.  The  federal 
constitution,  however,  does  guarantee  to  each  state  a  re- 
publican form  of  government  and  protection  against  inva- 
sion. It  further  prescribes  that  full  faith  and  credit  shall 
exist  mutually  among  the  several  states,  and  that  citi- 
zens of  one  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  citizens  of  another  state. 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


THE  BIRTH-PLACE  OF  THE  AJIERICAN  STATE 

Nation  and  State. — The  new  American  government 
was  a  federal  republic.  English  monarchical  traditions 
Division  failed  to  take  root  in  the  Western  world  and 
of  powers.  ^^  of  nobiiity  were  expressly  forbidden.  A 
centralized  form  of  government  was  out  of  the  question, 
and  we  have  seen  that  even  a  federation,  instead  of  a  con- 
federation, was  a  great  political  triumph.  The  present 
French  Republic,  by  way  of  contrast,  is  a  highly  centralized 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  73 

republic,  and  the  departments  into  which  the  nation  is 
divided  are  merely  administrative  units.  On  the  other 
hand,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the  various  self-govern- 
ing colonies  of  Great  Britain  are  federal  governments.  It 
is  interesting  to  trace  in  each  of  these  constitutions  the 
separation  of  powers  between  the  national  and  the  state 
governments.  In  the  United  States  the  powers  of  the  fed- 
eral government  are  expressed  in  the  constitution.  Re- 
sidual powers,  that  is,  those  not  mentioned,  are  reserved 
to  the  individual  states.  Some  powers  given  to  the  federal 
government  would  seem  sometimes  to  conflict  with  other 
similar  ones  reserved  to  the  states.  Such  overlapping  may 
cause  some  confusion,  but  the  supremacy  of  the  federal 
laws  and  treaties  is  specifically  stated  in  the  constitution 
itself. 

There  are  three  political  units  within  the  United  States, 
i.  e.,  the  national  government,  the  individual  states,  and 
finally  the  local  governments.  We  may  apply  a  Growth  of 

similar  three-fold  division  to  the  forms  of  local    concentra- 
tion, 
government.     Here  they  fall  into  three  main 

units, — county,  township,  and  city.  We  have  seen  the  im- 
portance of  town  life  in  early  New  England  and  are  not 
surprised  that  in  the  East  the  township  is  still  the  chief  unit 
of  local  government.  The  town  meeting  and  the  town  offi- 
cers are  very  important.  In  the  South  the  county  is  the 
chief  unit  of  local  government,  and  county  offices  are  rela- 
tively more  important.  The  Middle  Atlantic  and  Western 
states  show  every  variety  of  compromise  between  the  two 
systems.  But,  whether  the  county  or  the  township  system 
of  local  government  has  survived,  there  has  gradually  grown 
up  a  concentration  of  functions  within  the  commonwealths 
themselves.  The  state  government  is  taking  over  wholly, 


74  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

or  in  part,  many  duties  that  were  formerly  left  to  the  local 
communities.  Good  illustrations  of  this  growing  concentra- 
tion of  state  authority  are  found  in  matters  of  health,  edu- 
cation, charities,  and  roads.  In  the  same  way,  there  has 
been  a  shifting  of  function  from  the  state  to  the  national 
government.  By  the  passage  of  several  amendments  the 
national  government  has  encroached  upon  the  state  con- 
trol originally  exercised  over  suffrage.  The  federal  regula- 
tion of  commerce  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  industry  is  a 
similar  story  of  gradual  concentration  of  federal  power. 

Among  the  distinctively  national  problems  is  that  of 
national  defence.  It  involves  the  maintenance  of  an  army 
National  and  navy.  The  declaring  of  war,  the  making  of 
problems.  peace  an(j  other  treaties  are  distinctly  national 

functions.  The  control  over  immigration  and  naturaliza- 
tion are  kindred  duties.  Admission  to  citizenship  is  a  fed- 
eral matter,  but  the  granting  of  suffrage  is  a  state  matter 
except  as  limited  by  the  federal  amendments.  Special  fed- 
eral courts  of  justice  are  maintained.  Under  the  clause  in 
the  Constitution  giving  Congress  control  over  inter-state 
commerce,  our  national  government  is  wrestling  with  an 
ever  increasing  number  of  economic  problems.  Moreover, 
it  lays  and  collects  the  tariff  and  excise  duties.  The  federal 
income  tax  has  come  as  the  result  of  a  special  amendment. 
The  federal  government  alone  can  coin  money  and  issue 
paper  currency.  Here  we  are  face  to  face  with  the  national 
banking  system.  The  national  government  grants  patents 
and  copyrights.  Finally  the  post  office  is  a  federal  mo- 
nopoly and  under  this  power  has  been  developed  the  parcels 
post.  The  powers  granted  to  the  national  government  by  a 
sparsely  settled  agricultural  community  have  been  stretched 
to  meet  the  need  of  a  great  modern  industrial  nation. 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  75 

Viscount  Bryce  in  his  notable  study  of  The  American  Com- 
monwealth has  pointed  out  that  the  individual  citizen  has 
far  more  points  of  contact  with  the  state  than  state 
with  the  national  government.  Until  recently  Problems- 
the  national  government  never  taxed  him  directly,  as  did 
the  state  government  through  the  general  property  tax. 
Laws  of  marriage  and  divorce  are  made  by  the  individual 
commonwealths.  Similarly,  health  and  education  are  state 
functions.  The  county  courts  of  the  individual  states  han- 
dle the  great  mass  of  litigation,  and  the  punishment  of 
crime  is  generally  within  their  jurisdiction.  The  same  is 
true  of  public  charities,  but  here  the  local  authorities  are 
important.  Just  as  it  is  often  difficult  to  draw  an  arbitrary 
line  between  the  functions  of  the  national  and  the  state 
governments,  so  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  separate  the  work 
of  the  state  government  from  that  of  the  various  units  of 
local  government  within  the  state.  Not  only  is  there  over- 
lapping of  authority,  but  also  that  gradual  process  of  politi- 
cal concentration.  This  may  also  be  regarded  as  an 
adjustment  of  the  political  machinery  to  meet  the  needs 
of  changing  economic  and  social  conditions.  For  the  most 
part,  however,  the  great  mass  of  economic  legislation  in 
the  field  of  labor  problems,  working  conditions,  child  labor, 
and  social  insurance  is  within  the  province  of  the  individual 
states.  Our  study  of  the  problems  of  citizenship  is  made 
more  difficult  by  the  fact  that  the  laws  upon  a  given  sub- 
ject are  so  different  in  the  various  states.  Although  this 
fact  results  in  lack  of  uniformity,  it  permits  individual 
states  to  experiment  with  various  remedies  for  social 
maladjustments.  Thus,  Kansas,  Wisconsin,  and  other 
western  states  have  been  interesting  laboratories  for  the 
student  of  civic  problems. 


76  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Separation  of  Powers. — Not  only  is  there  a  division 
of  function  between  the  national  and  state  governments, 
but  there  is  also  a  separation  of  powers  between 
the  three  great  divisions  of  each  government. 
Montesquieu,  another  eighteenth  century  French  philos- 
opher, drew  a  line  of  distinction  between  the  executive,  the 
legislative,  and  the  judicial  branches  of  government,  which 
found  its  way  into  the  American  constitution.  This  prin- 
ciple was  followed  in  the  various  state  constitutions  and 
often  in  the  charters  of  city  governments.  The  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  in  pursuance  of  this  principle, 
vests  the  law-making  power  in  the  hands  of  Congress. 
After  considerable  discussion  a  two-chambered  house  was 
accepted  as  more  desirable  than  a  unicameral  body.  This 
bicameral  model  was  also  followed  by  the  state  constitu- 
tions and,  unfortunately,  by  many  city  charters  where  it 
served  merely  to  weaken  responsibility.  A  national  com- 
promise was  reached  between  the  large  and  small  states  in 
determining  upon  the  constitution  of  these  two  houses. 
The  membership  in  the  House  of  Representatives  was  to 
be  apportioned  among  the  states  according  to  population, 
but  in  the  Senate  each  state  was  to  have  two  senators 
irrespective  of  its  size  or  population. 

The  Constitution,  unlike  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 

provided  for  a  president  as  the  chief  executive.    It  was  his 

duty  to  see  that  the  laws  of  Congress  were  en- 

r/xecutive. 

forced.  He  possessed  a  veto,  but  Congress  could 
pass  a  law  over  this  veto  by  a  two-thirds  majority.  Simi- 
larly, the  state  constitutions  provided  for  an  executive  in 
the  form  of  a  governor.  Colonial  experience  with  pro- 
vincial governors  made  the  early  fathers  very  jealous  of 
the  powers  of  the  executive.  Early  state  constitutions, 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  77 

therefore,  granted  very  limited  powers  to  the  governors. 
The  faith  placed  in  the  legislature  weakened  as  time  went 
on  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  powers  of  the  executive 
gradually  gained  in  both  state  and  nation.  The  earlier 
method  of  electing  a  president  was  soon  changed  by  con- 
stitutional amendment.  Instead  of  the  second  highest 
candidate  becoming  vice-president,  the  development  of 
political  parties  made  it  advisable  for  a  distinct  presidential 
and  a  distinct  vice-presidential  candidate  to  run  on  each 
ticket.  The  framers  of  the  Constitution  devised  a  system 
of  electoral  colleges  to  prevent  the  direct  election  of  a 
president  by  the  people.  To-day  the  work  of  the  presiden- 
tial electors  is  purely  formal,  but  under  this  system  it  is 
possible  for  a  candidate  to  have  a  plurality  of  the  electoral 
vote  without  having  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  further  provided 
that  the  judicial  power  should  be  vested  in  one  Supreme 
Court  and  in  as  many  inferior  courts  as  Con- 

Judicial. 

gress  shall  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  estab- 
lish. The  members  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  president 
upon  the  approval  of  the  Senate.  The  function  of  the 
judiciary  is  to  interpret  the  laws  by  means  of  what  we  call 
test  cases.  We  have  seen  how  the  Supreme  Court  passes 
upon  the  constitutionality  of  a  law.  There  is  a  similar  state 
judiciary  in  each  of  the  commonwealths  to  perform  similar 
functions  for  the  state. 

The  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  functions  of  gov- 
ernment were  placed  in  three  supposedly  distinct  depart- 
ments. This  separation  of  powers  was  to  be  checks  and 
reenforced  by  a  system  of  checks  and  balances.  balai 
The  aim  was  to  prevent  one  branch  of  the  government  from 
encroaching  upon  another,  and  becoming  so  powerful  as  to 


78  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

threaten  individual  liberty  and  the  preservation  of  demo- 
cratic institutions.  For  example,  although  the  president 
had  a  veto  upon  the  laws  of  Congress,  that  body  had  the 
right  to  impeach  him.  By  their  appointing  power  the 
president  and  the  Senate  could  control  the  personnel  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  but  the  latter  had  the  power  of  passing 
upon  the  constitutionality  of  the  laws  made  by  Congress. 
Hence  the  separation  of  powers  between  the  three  funda- 
mental departments  has  not  been  so  great  as  has  been  fre- 
quently claimed.  By  the  device  of  checks  and  balances  it 
was  hoped  that  the  mistaken  policies,  or  undemocratic 
tendencies,  of  one  department  could  be  curbed  by  the 
other  two  departments.  It  has,  however,  just  as  frequently 
tended  to  confuse  responsibility  and  to  make  for  political 
dead-locks.  Out  of  this  situation  has  grown  the  political 
party,  which  has  assumed  the  responsibility  for  enacting 
legislation.  The  English  system  has  no  such  separation  of 
powers  and  the  cabinet  combines  both  the  executive  and 
the  legislative  functions.  The  courts  are  merely  divisions 
of  the  executive  department,  for  we  have  seen  that  there  is 
no  question  regarding  the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of 
Parliament.  A  recent  writer  upon  American  government 
would  substitute  for  the  former  three-fold  division  of  gov- 
ernmental functions  a  two-fold  division.  This  plan  would 
differentiate  only  between  the  political  and  the  adminis- 
trative functions  of  government.  The  political  function  is 
that  of  making  the  laws  and  should  be  exercised  through 
the  elected,  representative  spokesmen  of  public  opinion. 
The  administrative  functions  imply  the  carrying  out  of 
these  laws  in  the  most  efficient  manner  and  should  be  exer- 
cised by  a  group  of  expert  officials  chosen  largely  by  some 
form  of  Civil  Service  examinations. 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  79 

The  American  cabinet  is  a  very  different  institution  from 
the  British  cabinet.  The  American  cabinet-members  are 
administrative  officers,  the  heads  of  their  de- 

Compari- 

partments,  and  the  advisors  of  the  president,    son  with 
The  British  cabinet-members  may  be  in  charge   cabinet 
of  administrative  departments,  but  they  are  also 
members  of  Parliament  possessing  legislative   as  well  as 
executive  functions.    The  prime  minister  and  his  cabinet 
are  known  as  "the   government"  and   they   outline  the 
national    political    policy.      The    ministry    continues    in 
power  so  long  as  it  can  command  a  majority  vote  in  Parlia- 
ment.   If  defeated  upon  an  important  issue,  the  cabinet 
resigns.    A  new  prime  minister  forms  a  new  cabinet  from 
the  party  in  power  in  Parliament.    If  the  defeated  ministry, 
however,  feels  that  Parliament  does  not  represent  correctly 
the  public  opinion  of  the  nation,  it  may  appeal  to  the 
country  for  a  new  election.  Thus,  a  parliamentary  election 
may  be  held  at  any  time  upon  an  important  issue,  and 
cabinet  ministries  are  short  or  long-lived  according  to  the 
degree  in  which  they  reflect  the  national  public  opinion. 
In  America  presidential  elections  are  held  regularly  every 
four  years  and  congressional  elections  every  two  years.    It 
has  been  objected  that  our  method  is  less  apt  to  secure  an 
immediate  expression  of  public  opinion  upon  a  definite 
political  issue.     The  English  parliamentary  system  is  the 
result  of  a  long  political  evolution,  representing  a  succession 
of  social  adjustments.     It  has  become  the  model  for  the 
British  self-governing  colonies  and  has  also  influenced  the 
constitutional  development  of  continental  Europe.     Some 
Latin  American  republics  have  followed  the  model  of  the 
American  system,  while  other  have  attempted  to  combine 
some  features  of  both  systems. 


8o  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  unwritten  constitution  of 
Great  Britain? 

2.  What  are  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  as  compared  with 
the  written  constitution  of  the  United  States? 

3.  In  what  way  may  the  constitution  of   the  United  States  be 
amended? 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  federal  and  centralized  governments. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  functions  and  problems  of  the  national 
government. 

6.  Do  the  same  for  the  state  government. 

7.  Show  the  concentration  of  power  that  has  gradually  taken 
place. 

8.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  system  of  checks  and  balances. 

9.  How  has  it  worked  out  in  practice? 

10.  Trace  and  criticize  our  method  of  electing  a  president. 

11.  It  has  been  said  that  the  courts  help  to  make  the  law  in 
America.     Explain. 

12.  Differentiate  between  the  political  and  administrative  func- 
tions of  government. 

13.  Do  you  regard  this  distinction  as  superior  to  the  older  three- 
fold division  of  governmental  functions?    Why  or  why  not? 

14.  Compare  the  English  cabinet  with  our  own. 

15.  What  would  an  Englishman  understand  by  a  "change  of 
government."     Show  how  it  operates. 

16.  In  what  way  is  the  British  Government  superior  and  in  what 
ways  inferior  to  our  own? 

17.  In  what  ways  is  the  British  system  more  democratic  and  in 
what  ways  is  it  less  democratic  than  our  own? 

1 8.  Are  all  republics  necessarily  democracies?    Why  or  why  not? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  Constitutions  and  social  progress. 

2.  The  separation  of  powers  in  theory  and  practice. 

3.  A  comparison  of  Congressional  and  Parliamentary  forms  of 
government. 

4.  Constitutional  guarantees  of  liberty. 


The  Organization  of  Political  Machinery  81 

5.  The  evolution  of  the  English  cabinet, — a  study  in  adjustment. 

6.  Imitation  of  the  American  Constitution. 

REFERENCES 

BEARD,  C.  A.    American  Government  and  Politics. 

BRYCE,  J.     The  American  Commonwealth. 

BRYCE,  J.    Modern. Democracies. 

GOODNOW,  F.  J.     Politics  and  Administration. 

MAGRUDER,  F.  A.    American  Government  in  1921. 

OGG,  F.  A.    Governments  of  Europe. 

WILSON,  W.     The  State.     Congressional  Government. 

YOUNG,  J.  T.     The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  POLITICAL  MACHINERY  IN  MOTION 

I.  Functions  of  government 

1 .  Their  evolution  and  adjustment 

2.  Older  attitude 

3.  The  transition 

4.  The  social  ideal 
II.  Duties  of  citizenship 

1 .  Military  service 

2.  Taxation 

3.  Civic  responsibilities 
III.  Government  at  work 

1.  Public  opinion 

2.  Political  parties 

3.  The  legislative  process : 

a.  Organization  of  the  legislature 

b.  Course  of  a  bill 

c.  Appropriation  bills 

Functions  of  Government. — A  study  of  the  organi- 
zation of  the  political  machinery  is  of   little    value  un- 
less it  helps  to  explain  the  functioning  of  the 
and  ad-         government.    Organized  government  exists  to  do 

justment.  . 

things  for  a  cooperative  society.  The  more  co- 
operative the  society,  the  more  complex  is  the  governmental 
machinery.  In  forms  of  government,  as  in  forms  of  life, 
there  is  an  evolution  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  The 
functions  of  government  have  been  constantly  increasing 

82 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  83 

as  the  State  has  grown  from  a  wandering  tribe  of  shepherds 
to  a  great  industrial  nation.  The  recognized  functions  of 
the  State  are  constantly  changing  and  present  a  continuous 
problem  of  adjustment.  Burning  heretics  was  a  legitimate 
function  of  the  State  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  modern  times 
have  brought  not  only  religious  liberty  but  also  the  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State.  Each  generation  must  ask  itself 
again  the  question:  What  are  the  legitimate  functions  of 
the  State?  Although  the  names  are  frequently  confused, 
the  anarchist  and  the  socialist  have  very  different  answers 
to  this  question.  The  anarchist  is  dangerous  to  society  be- 
cause he  does  not  admit  the  fundamental  functions  and 
powers  of  the  State.  He  would  destroy  the  political  organ- 
ization of  society.  The  socialist,  on  the  other  hand,  would 
extend  the  functions  of  the  State  to  include  the  ownership 
and  operation  of  the  means  of  production.  Between  these 
two  opposite  poles  are  many  different  shades  of  opinion  as 
to  the  legitimate  functions  of  the  State. 

The  police  power  of  the  State,  which  is  fundamental,  is 
the  starting  point  of  its  functions.  Society  is  organized 
politically  for  the  purpose  of  protection  against  The  older 
internal  disorder  and  against  foreign  invasion.  ' 
Additional  responsibilities  the  State  was  at  first  loath  to 
assume.  This  was  the  attitude  of  writers  a  century  ago. 
Adam  Smith  published  his  Wealth  of  Nations  in  1776, 
which  thereby  became  an  important  date  in  economic  as 
well  as  in  political  history.  He  protested  against  the  gov- 
ernmental regulations  advocated  by  the  older  group  of 
economists  known  as  the  Mercantilists.  For  illustration, 
he  favored  free  trade  and  asserted  that,  without  govern- 
mental interference  in  industry,  society  is  guided  by  an 
" invisible  hand"  toward  its  own  best  interests.  The  "in- 


84  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

visible  hand"  is  self-interest  and  free  competition.  This 
attitude  has  been  called  that  of  laissezfaire  or  "let  alone." 
To  this  school  belonged  the  great  sociologist,  Herbert 
Spencer,  who  believed  that  natural  selection  should  be 
given  freer  play  in  organized  society.  He  had  great  con- 
tempt for  social  reforms  through  legislation,  asserting  that 
Parliament  passed  laws  only  to  repeal  them  later. 

However,  after  a  century  of  experiment,  laissez  faire  or 
individualism  has  been  tried  in  the  balance  and  found 
The  transi-  wanting.  The  world  is  now  in  a  period  of  transi- 
tion toward  another  stage  of  development  which 
we  may  call  that  of  social  welfare.  Under  the  laissezfaire 
or  "let  alone"  system  of  politics  the  women  of  England 
toiled  under  an  industrial  day  of  twelve  and  fourteen  hours, 
while  "the  bitter  cry  of  the  children"  made  government 
regulation  imperative.  In  our  own  day  groups  of  indi- 
viduals have  monopolized  and  exploited  for  their  personal 
gain  the  free  gifts  of  nature  so  that  the  voice  of  the  socialist 
and  the  single-taxer  is  heard  throughout  the  land.  Anti- 
trust laws,  interstate  commerce  acts,  and  industrial  and 
price-fixing  regulations  begin  to  give  us  the  shock  of  dawn- 
ing paternalism.  Regulation  has  become  necessary  be- 
cause the  life  of  mankind  is  a  group  life;  no  man  is  a  law 
unto  himself.  It  is  right  for  men  to  exercise  the  rights  of 
life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  only  when  such 
action  does  not  interfere  with  the  corresponding  rights  of 
others.  Thus,  intemperance  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  in- 
dividual concern  but  of  social  regulation,  because  the  fami- 
lies of  such  unfortunates  are  not  only  deprived  of  their  rights 
to  life  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  but  also  because  they 
become  an  additional  charge  on  the  public  expense.  Again, 
the  tipsy  engineer  holds  the  lives  of  hundreds  of  others  in 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  85 

the  balance.  The  frontiersman  of  yesterday  slaughtered 
his  own  cattle  and  baked  his  own  bread,  but  to-day,  the 
city  consumer  serves  upon  his  table  articles  of  food  pre- 
pared in  many  distant  places,  by  many  different  hands. 
Hence  pure  food  laws  become  necessary  to  social  welfare. 
Society  has  found  it  necessary  to  protect  itself  against  the 
extreme  individualist  whether  he  be  monopolist,  drunkard, 
or  food  adulterator. 

Democracy  and  liberty  for  all  are  not  assured  until  every 
individual  in  society  has  done  his  duty  toward  other  mem- 
bers of  the  group.  The  individual  and  the  State  The  social 
are  reciprocal.  Each  exists  for  the  benefit  of  ldeaL 
the  other,  and  their  interests  must  harmonize  if  social  wel- 
fare is  to  be  attained.  The  modern  idea  of  cooperation  is 
the  antithesis  of  laissez  faire  and  of  medieval  isolation. 
This  ideal  of  social  welfare  has  been  called  the  twentieth 
century  spirit  of  Christianity,  for  it  teaches  that,  in  a  sense, 
each  man  is  his  brother's  keeper.  Voluntary  cooperation 
is  the  highest  form  of  social  control  in  a  democracy.  The 
extreme  Prussian  concept  of  the  State,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  that  the  individual  existed  for  the  State,  and  not  the 
State  for  the  individual.  It  enforced  cooperation  and 
finally,  like  the  fiery  Moloch,  demanded  its  bloody  sacrifice. 
Some  writers  claim,  however,  that  the  state  socialism  of 
Germany  improved  conditions  among  the  laboring  classes. 
An  efficient  bureaucracy  carried  the  elaborate  state  func- 
tions into  the  lives  of  the  individual  citizens  to  an  extent 
unknown  in  Great  Britain  or  America.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
would  have  regarded  such  paternalism  at  best  as  "benevo- 
lent despotism." 

Duties  of  Citizenship. — Since  the  State  and  the  in- 
dividual exist  for  the  benefit  of  each  other,  their  obligations 


86  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

are  mutual.    When  a  State  can  no  longer  protect  its  citi- 
zens it  ceases  to  exist.     When  the  German  tribes  began 
Military        to  roam  at  will  through  the  Roman  Empire, 
service.         tne  ^^  Qf  Rome  were  numbered.     Feudalism 
succeeded  the  "pax  Romana",  which  had  given  protection 
for  centuries  to  the  civilized  world.    In  the  same  manner, 
American  citizenship  should  carry  protection  to  our  citi- 
zens traveling  in  all  parts  of  the  world.    Such  security  has 
its  price,  and  the  citizen  therefore  owes  allegiance  to  the 
State.     In  a  great  national  crisis  this  takes  the  form  of 
military  service.     In   the  olden   days  of  feudalism   the 
mutual  obligations  of  lord  and  vassal  were  real  and  per- 
sonal as  shown  in  the  stirring  lines  of  Sir  Walter  Scott: 
"When  flies  the  cross  from  man  to  man, 
Vich-Alpin's  summons  to  his  clan, 
Burst  be  the  ear  that  fails  to  heed, 
Palsied  the  knee  that  fails  to  speed." 
In  the  recent  World  War  the  national  government  sent 
a  similar  summons  to  the  manhood  of  America.    On  a 
given  day,   ten  million  men  registered  for  military  ser- 
vice  before    the    various    draft   boards   throughout   the 
United  States. 

Less  romantic  is  the  duty  of  the  citizen  to  pay  taxes.    In 

earlier  times  these  obligations  took  the  form  of  personal 

services.    Thus,  the  vassal  fought  for  his  lord 

Taxation. 

and  the  serf  worked  in  his  field.  Gradually  these 
services  took  the  form  of  money  payments.  Scutage,  for 
illustration,  was  a  shield  tax  in  lieu  of  military  service. 
With  the  great  recent  growth  in  governmental  functions 
there  has  been  a  similar  growth  in  taxation.  The  wars  of 
civilization  are  far  more  destructive  and  costly  than  those 
of  more  primitive  peoples.  At  the  present  time,  therefore, 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  87 

about  nine-tenths  of  our  taxes  go  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
wars,  past,  present,  and  future. 

*  Finally  it  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  take  an  active 
and  intelligent  interest  in  his  government,  national,  state 
and  local.  There  are  many  "slacker"  voters  Civicr 
who  do  not  go  to  the  polls.  Instead,  they  merely  sponsibiii- 
criticize  destructively,  from  easy  chairs  at  home, 
the  men  and  parties  in  power.  There  is  need  for  the  citizen 
in  action,  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war.  Government  is  a 
human  product  and  no  better  or  worse  than  the  men  and 
women  who  compose  it.  Democracy  may  be  inefficient  and 
at  times  corrupt,  but  the  only  cure  for  the  ills  of  democracy 
is  more  democracy.  The  Greeks  had  an  exalted  sense  of 
civic  responsibility  toward  their  city  states.  The  Roman 
had  a  noble  patriotism  and  political  genius  in  dealing  with 
the  problems  of  empire.  The  Anglo-Saxon,  however, 
added  the  development  of  representative  institutions 
which  the  democracies  of  antiquity  never  evolved.  Rep- 
resentative government  can  only  succeed  with  an  active 
and  informed  citizenship  working  incessantly  for  the  good 
of  the  State. 

Government  at  Work.— Public  opinion  is  a  form  of 
social  control  which  finally  expresses  itself  in  law.  Law  is 
more  static,  however,  than  public  opinion.  Public 
Many  laws  upon  our  statute  books  do  not  repre-  opl11 
sent  the  social  mind  of  to-day,  but  rather  the  public  opin- 
ion of  a  generation  ago.  Again,  every  fluctuating  change 
in  public  opinion  does  not  crystallize  into  law.  Public 
opinion,  however,  is  a  relatively  permanent  expression  of 
the  group  mind,  as  compared  with  its  reflection  in  crowd 
psychology.  Folkways  and  the  customs  of  the  group  in- 
fluence the  character  of  public  opinion.  The  degree  of 


88  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

popular  intelligence  and  education  is  important,  for  with- 
out them  there  cannot  be  a  real  public  opinion.  This  re- 
quires that  each  individual  should  think  for  himself  without 
being  unduly  swayed  by  the  influence  of  suggestion.  Such 
is  the  aim  of  education  in  a  democracy.  It  is  vicious  for  a 
nation  to  use  its  educational  system  to  mould  future  pub- 
lic opinion  in  any  one  pattern.  Germany  possessed  an 
excellent  educational  machine  but  deliberately  used  it 
for  the  manufacture  of  a  certain  type  of  "Kultur."  The 
final  result  was  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a  public 
opinion  which  might  have  checked  the  unfortunate  policy 
of  that  nation.  Newspapers  have  a  very  important  effect 
upon  the  development  of  public  opinion  in  America.  Un- 
fortunately these  are  frequently  biased,  or  at  least  reflect 
but  one  point  of  view.  Many  American  families  read  but 
one  paper  and  buy  ready-made  opinion  upon  matters  of 
the  day.  There  are  thousands  of  private  associations 
existing  for  the  purpose  of  moulding  public  opinion  upon 
various  matters.  Campaigns  of  publicity,  similar  to  those 
of  advertising,  seek  to  incline  public  opinion  toward  such 
matters  as  the  open  shop  or  a  higher  tariff.  A  Single  Tax 
League  may  work  strenuously  in  another  direction.  Lob- 
bies are  organized  efforts,  not  merely  to  color  public  opinion 
in  general,  but  to  influence  legislators  to  act  favorably  upon 
their  interests. 

Political  parties  are  institutions  for  getting  the  public 
opinion  of  the  majority  written  into  law.  Their  rapid 
Political  development;  was  not  foreseen  by  the  fathers  who 
framed  the  constitution.  Like  England,  but  un- 
like the  continent  of  Europe,  America  has  had  a  two-party 
system.  European  cabinets  are  coalition  cabinets,  that  is, 
they  are  made  up  of  ministers  of  various  parties.  An 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  89 

English  cabinet,  however,  is  usually  made  up  solidly  of 
ministers  from  the  one  party  in  power.  It  is  known  as 
"the  government,"  and  the  other  party  as  "the  opposi- 
tion." There  are  several  minor  parties  in  America,  but 
the  bulk  of  the  nation  is  divided  into  Democrats  and  Re- 
publicans. As  early  as  Washington's  administration  a 
party  in  opposition  to  the  government  arose  in  the  Anti- 
Federalists.  Under  the  name  of  the  Democratic-Republi- 
cans they  triumphed  under  Jefferson.  The  Jeffersonian 
democracy  evolved  into  that  of  Jackson's  administration. 
With  "Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too,"  the  Whigs  had  a  short- 
lived success  which  broke  the  steady  succession  of  demo- 
cratic presidents.  The  great  issues  of  slavery  and  the 
preservation  of  the  union  loomed  up  on  the  horizon  of  the 
Civil  War,  and  the  modern  Republican  party  emerged 
under  the  leadership  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Since  that  time 
economic  quesions,  such  as  the  tariff  and  the  currency, 
have  occupied  the  great  political  arena.  Each  presidential 
election  is  a  campaign  of  popular  education  for  the  voter. 
Party  platforms  are  drawn  up,  which  contain  the  articles 
of  faith  of  each  group  upon  the  questions  of  the  day.  Each 
party  points  with  pride  to  its  own  achievements  and  views 
with  alarm  the  tendencies  of  its  opponents.  Political  par- 
ties are  good  in  so  far  as  they  stimulate  and  crystallize 
public  opinion.  They  are  bad  in  so  far  as  they  develop  a 
machine  organization  to  which  the  voter  owes  absolute 
allegiance  and  to  which  he  sacrifices  his  political  inde- 
pendence. Frequently  the  question  is  not  one  of  public 
policy,  but  one  of  men  and  patronage,  that  is,  control  over 
the  public  offices.  The  extension  of  the  national  party 
lines  to  local  matters  is  unfortunate,  because  the  issues 
frequently  have  nothing  in  common. 


9o 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  91 

Party  lines  are  rather  strictly  drawn  in  the  legislative 
assemblies.     When  an  important  matter  comes  up  for 
action  a  party  caucus  may  be  held.    The  major- 
ity party,  sitting  alone  and  unofficially,  may   iativeeglS" 
thus  determine  the  fate  of  a  bill.    When  this  bill   £ocess'. 

Organization 

later  comes  up  officially  in  the  regular  session    °fthe 

r  .     .      ,  legislature. 

of  the  legislature,  the  majority  party  formally 
votes  for  or  against  it  as  previously  determined  in  the 
caucus.  The  voice  of  the  people  theoretically  expresses 
itself  through  their  elected  representatives.  In  voting  yea 
or  nay  on  a  proposed  bill  the  legislator  is  expected  to  ex- 
press the  desires  of  his  constituents.  His  voting  record  is 
generally  made  public  in  reelection  campaigns.  The  legis- 
lative process  by  which  bills  become  laws  is  important  to 
the  student  of  social  problems.  The  method  of  procedure 
of  the  national  Congress  is  fairly  typical  of  that  followed 
by  the  individual  states.  The  committee  organization  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  our  legislative  policy.  There  are 
various  committees  in  both  houses,  such  as  the  committee 
on  rules  and  that  on  the  eligibility  of  members.  Among 
the  most  important  committees  is  the  Committee  on  Fin- 
ance in  the  Senate  and  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  bills  for  raising 
revenue  must  originate.  The  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  presides  over  the  Senate,  but  the  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  is  elected  by  the  members.  This 
model  has  been  followed  in  many  of  the  commonwealths. 
The  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  was  formerly 
a  more  important  figure  than  he  is  to-day,  because  he  has 
largely  lost  his  power  of  appointing  committees.  Both  the 
two  great  parties  have  their  floor  leaders,  who  are  im- 
portant persons  in  the  legislative  assemblies.  They  at- 


92  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tempt  to  control  the  parliamentary  maneuvers  of  their 
respective  party  members. 

Every  legislative  session  is  flooded  with  bills,  many  of 
which  never  get  beyond  the  " pickling"  committees.  Suc- 
Courseof  cessful  bills  are  generally  those  of  the  adminis- 
am-  tration  in  power  and  have  the  support  of  the 

party  leaders  before  they  are  introduced.  A  bill  may  be 
introduced  by  any  member  of  the  legislature,  after  which 
it  is  numbered,  duly  recorded,  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 
After  its  introduction,  a  bill  is  referred  to  the  proper  com- 
mittee which  later  reports  back  upon  it  to  the  house. 
There  are  three  successive  readings  of  a  bill,  during  one  of 
which  it  is  discussed  section  by  section.  The  debate  is 
often  long  and  tedious.  Many  amendments  may  be  added, 
so  that  the  original  character  of  the  bill  may  be  greatly 
changed.  If  the  bill  is  finally  passed  it  is  then  sent  to  the 
other  house  where  a  similar  course  is  followed.  Here  it  may 
be  rejected  or  sent  back  to  the  first  house  with  a  new  set 
of  amendments.  For  this  reason  a  joint  conference  com- 
mittee for  the  two  houses  is  sometimes  necessary  to  secure 
the  final  passage  of  the  bill  by  the  legislature.  The  final 
step  is  the  securing  of  the  signature  of  the  executive.  To- 
ward the  end  of  a  legislative  session  there  is  considerable 
pressure  to  get  bills  through,  and  the  result  of  this  hasty 
legislation  is  frequently  reflected  in  the  inferior  character 
of  the  laws.  "Riders"  may  be  added  or  " joker"  clauses 
inserted,  which  vitiate  the  original  purpose  of  the  bill. 
Some  states  have  instituted  bureaus,  whose  personnel  is 
composed  of  legal  experts,  in  order  to  insure  a  more  careful 
phrasing  of  the  laws. 

Appropriation  bills  are  of  a  special  character.  For  their 
discussion  the  house  generally  resolves  itself  into  a  com- 


The  Political  Machinery  in  Motion  93 

mittee  of  the  whole.  Here  the  fight  is  often  strenuous, 
because  individual  members  seek  to  prevent  particular 
appropriations  from  being  cut.  In  addition,  the  Appropria~ 
evils  of  "log  rolling"  are  here  apparent.  On  tionbills' 
the  eve  of  adjournment  compromises  are  effected,  and  a 
flood  of  appropriation  bills  is  passed,  which  involves 
enormous  expenditures  of  money.  Too  often  appropriation 
bills  are  considered  separately  and  no  attempt  is  made  to 
balance  income  and  expenditure.  To  remedy  this  situation 
the  national  government  has  recently  introduced  the  budget 
system  under  which  the  various  departments  of  government 
make  out  estimates  of  their  expenses  for  the  coming  year. 
A  proper  balance  can  then  be  struck  according  to  relative 
needs  and  importance.  Against  the  sum  total  of  expenses 
can  be  placed  the  probable  income  for  the  next  year  from 
all  sources  of  revenue.  By  such  a  scheme  wasteful  and  ex- 
travagant appropriations  can  be  cut  down  so  that  the  work 
of  the  essential  branches  of  the  government  need  not  suffer 
from  lack  of  funds.  An  effective  budget  system  is  neces- 
sary to  financial  efficiency  in  nation,  state,  and  city. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Show  how  there  has  been  an  evolution  of  governmental  func- 
tions from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

2.  Contrast  the  anarchist  with  the  socialist. 

3.  What  are  the  essential  functions  of  the  State? 

4.  What  views  did  the  laissez-faire  theorists  hold?    Who  were 
some  of  these  writers? 

5.  Why  was  this  theory  abandoned? 

6.  What  do  you  understand  by  paternalism? 

7.  Upon   what  basis  would  you  compromise  between  the  two 
extremes? 

8.  Why  is  extreme  individualism  impossible  to-day? 

9.  Explain  the  new  social  ideal. 


94  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

10.  What  obligations  does  the  State  owe  the  individual? 

11.  What  obligations  does  the  individual  owe  the  State? 

12.  What  is  public  opinion?     Contrast  with  mob  spirit. 

13.  How  can  an  intelligent  public  opinion  be  fostered? 

14.  What  social  institutions  and  instruments  are  important  in 
America? 

15.  What  are  political  parties  and  their  functions? 

1 6.  What  are  some  dangers  and  evils  of  their  organization? 

17.  In  what  respect  does  party  organization  in  America  resemble 
that  of  England  rather  than  that  of  the  continent  of  Europe? 

1 8.  Discuss  the  campaign  platform  of  some  political  party. 

19.  What  social  maladjustments  has  legislation  attempted   to 
remedy? 

20.  Sketch  the  organization  of  the  legislature. 

21.  Show  the  successive  steps  by  which  a  bill  becomes  a  law. 

22.  Compare  the  "appropriations"  system  with  the  "budget" 
system. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  New  functions  of  government  and  the  increasing  cost. 

2.  The  separation  of  Church  and  State. 

3.  The  laissez-faire  theory. 

4.  The  paternalism  of  the  German  government. 

5.  A  sound  budget  system. 

6.  The  party  platforms  in  the  last  presidential  election. 

7.  Public  opinion  as  a  means  of  social  control. 

REFERENCES 

BEARD,  C.  A.     American  Government  and  Politics. 
BRYCE,  J.     The  American  Commonwealth. 

Modern  Democracies. 

GOODNOW,  F.  J.     Politics  and  Administration. 
MAGRUDER,  F.  A.    American  Government  in  1921. 
OGG,  F.  A.     Governments  of  Europe. 
WILSON,  W.     The  State. 
YOUNG,  J.  T.     The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work. 


CHAPTER  IX 

A  CENTURY  or  POLITICAL  EVOLUTION 

I.  An  expanding  nation 

1.  Westward  Ho! 

2.  The  frontier  and  democracy 

3.  The  triumph  of  nationalism 

4.  From  an  agrarian  to  an  industrial  democracy 
II.  New  forces  at  work 

1.  Woman  suffrage 

2.  Direct  election  of  senators 

3.  Extension  of  Civil  Service  Reform 

4.  The  short  ballot 

5.  The  initiative  and  referendum 

6.  Recall  of  judicial  decisions 

7.  Direct  primaries 
III.  The  problem  of  empire 

1 .  Earlier  isolation 

2.  The  Spanish- American  War 

3.  The  World  War 

An  Expanding    Nation. — The   western   boundary   of 
the  newly  emancipated  nation  was  the  Mississippi  River, 
but  at  first  population  clung  to  the  Atlantic  sea-    westward 
board.     In  early  days  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tains had  been  an  effective  barrier,  but  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  saw  hardy  pioneers  crossing  them  and 
braving  the  unknown  wilderness  to  the  West.    Here  great 
rolling  prairies,  covered  only  with  grass,  made  it  unnec- 
essary to  clear  the  forest  in  order  to  plant  crops.     Conse- 

95 


96  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

quently  the  western  migration  attained  rapid  results.  The 
movement  was  aided  by  immigration  from  Europe  attracted 
by  the  abundance  of  free  land.  The  national  and  state 
governments  vied  with  each  other  in  the  building  of  roads 
and  canals.  The  Louisiana  Purchase  extended  our  boun- 
daries from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Later  Texas  came  into  the  Union,  and  the  war  with  Mexico 
added  the  great  southwestern  section.  The  Oregon  Treaty 
with  Great  Britain  and  the  earlier  purchase  of  Florida  from 
Spain  rounded  out  our  present  continental  territory.  The 
Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  told  of  an  unexplored  empire, 
rich  in  all  sorts  of  natural  resources.  Again,  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  California  gave  a  still  greater  impetus  to  the 
western  migration.  "The  forty-niners"  were  the  van- 
guard of  the  long  continuous  trail  of  " prairie  schooners" 
which  slowly  made  their  way  across  what  was  then  called 
"  the  Great  American  Desert."  The  character  and  place 
of  these  pioneers  in  American  history  has  been  well  pic- 
tured in  the  poem  of  Walt  Whitman. 

The  frontier  has  had  an  important  influence  in  shaping 
the  character  and  evolution  of  American  democracy.  Im- 
migration has  been  called  a  selective  process  which  picks 
The  fron-  ou**  ^ne  stronger  and  more  restless  elements  in  a 
democrac  population-  In  the  melting  pot  of  the  New  World, 
European  races,  creeds,  and  classes  mingled 
together  to  form  a  new  national  character.  European 
traditions  and  castes  were  more  easily  sloughed  off  in  the 
freer  air  of  the  new  society.  We  have  seen  how  the  new 
England  was  able  to  perceive  earlier  than  the  old  England 
that  taxation  without  representation  was  tyranny.  After 
our  own  independence  had  been  achieved,  the  new  nation 
watched  with  mingled  emotions  the  progress  of  the  French 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  97 

Revolution.  The  Jeffersonian  democracy  was  swept  into 
power  upon  such  transplanted  phrases  as  "  liberty,  equality, 
and  fraternity."  It  was  a  repudiation  of  the  aristocratic  as 
well  as  of  the  centralizing  tendencies  of  the  Federalists. 
The  knee  trousers,  silk  stockings,  and  powdered  wigs  of 
the  early  fathers  disappeared  from  American  political  and 
social  life.  The  Jacksonian  democracy  was  more  extreme 
than  that  of  Jefferson's  day.  It  was  a  native  frontier 
product  and  represented  the  political  triumph  of  the  back- 
woodsman. This  element  continued  through  later  Amer- 
ican history  and  the  rail  splitter,  Abraham  Lincoln,  went 
to  the  White  House. 

A  continental  nation  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  was  but  a  dream  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  wisdom,  as  well  The 
as  the  constitutionality,  of  the  Louisiana  Pur-  triumph  of 
chase  was  debated  by  Jefferson  when  he  consid- 
ered how  long  it  would  take  a  representative  from  the  extreme 
West  to  go  to  Washington  and  return.  The  inventions  of 
the  locomotive  and  the  steamboat  have  changed  the  entire 
situation  and  made  the  dreams  of  a  century  ago  come 
true.  Railroads  have  bound  the  states  together  with 
bands  of  steel.  Mountains  have  been  tunneled  and  great 
rivers  crossed  by  the  new  engineering  science.  The  tele- 
graph and  the  telephone  flash  news  immediately  across  the 
continent.  There  is  another  side  to  the  story,  however,  for, 
during  our  earlier  history,  the  dark  shadow  of  slavery  had 
thrown  itself  across  the  union.  The  geographical  character 
of  the  country  made  slavery  unprofitable  in  the  North  but 
tended  to  fasten  it  upon  the  South.  The  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  increased  the  demand  for  raw  cotton  which  was 
picked  by  slave  labor.  The  Missouri  Compromise  in  1820 
H 


98  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

sounded  the  first  ominous  note,  when  the  advocates  of 
slavery  demanded  its  territorial  extension.  The  Mexican 
War  brought  into  the  Union  more  slave  territory  and 
helped  preserve  temporarily  the  balance  between  the  free 
and  slave  states.  Meanwhile  the  institution  of  slavery  was 
intrenching  itself  behind  the  doctrine  of  states  rights.  Was 
the  union  a  federation  with  sovereignty  residing  in  the 
nation,  or  was  it  merely  a  confederation  with  sovereignty 
residing  in  the  individual  states?  Calhoun  defended  the 
theory  of  states  rights  and  Webster  the  cause  of  national- 
ism. As  sectionalism  increased  it  became  more  apparent 
that  a  "house  divided  against  itself "  could  not  stand.  The 
secession  of  South  Carolina  and  the  attack  upon  Fort 
Sumter  marked  the  opening  of  hostilities.  When  Lincoln 
issued  his  Emancipation  Proclamation  he  made  the  cause 
of  "liberty  and  union  one  and  inseparable,'*  which  the 
victory  of  the  federal  troops  guaranteed.  The  surrender 
at  Appomattox  Court  House  ended  one  period  in  American 
history  and  ushered  in  a  new  era  of  national  development. 
The  great  political  questions  following  the  Civil  War  and 
Reconstruction  period  were  largely  economic  in  their 

character.  Different  interests  and  varied  classes 
agrarian  to  began  to  clash  in  later  legislative  battles.  The 
democracy.  new  figures  of  capital  and  labor  appeared  in  the 

political  arena.  The  old  agricultural  society  had 
developed  new  commercial  and  industrial  interests.  A 
small,  simple,  agrarian  democracy  had  developed  into  a 
huge,  industrial  democracy.  This  evolution  from  the  sim- 
ple to  the  complex  made  necessary  political,  as  well  as 
social  and  economic,  adjustments.  What  does  democracy 
mean  in  the  new  era  of  the  railroad,  the  corporation,  and 
"big  business"?  After  the  freedom  of  the  black  slaves  was 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  99 

secured,  there  was  yet  a  problem  of  liberty  and  equality 
in  a  society  which  permitted  child  labor  and  sweat  shops. 
A  growth  and  concentration  of  wealth  had  taken  place 
which  threatened  the  very  foundations  of  democracy. 
There  was  also  a  geographical  concentration  of  population  in 
great  cities,  whose  political  corruption  made  them  sore  spots 
upon  the  body  politic.  The  political  center  of  gravity  had 
shifted  from  the  farming  groups  to  the  business  interests. 
New  Forces  at  Work. — A  number  of  new  political  in- 
fluences and  tendencies  appeared  within  the  nation  in  the 
period  following  the  Civil  War.  A  few  typical  Woman 
illustrations  follow.  In  the  first  place,  the  suffra«e- 
electorate  was  expanded  by  the  introduction  of  new  groups 
of  voters.  The  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution 
made  the  negro  a  voter,  but  the  later  introduction  of  edu- 
cational tests  throughout  the  South  often  deprived  him 
of  his  new  privilege.  In  colonial  days  the  franchise  was 
much  restricted  by  property  qualifications,  which,  however, 
disappeared  in  the  early  days  of  the  new  republic.  After 
the  Civil  War  several  western  states  withdrew  the  sex  bar- 
rier and  permitted  women  to  vote.  As  early  as  1869  women 
were  given  the  ballot  in  Wyoming,  but  the  movement 
spread  slowly  until  the  Progressive  campaign  of  1912. 
Great  economic  changes  had  brought  women  into  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  world  and  had  made  more  glaring 
the  injustice  of  their  political  disfranchisement.  The  op- 
ponents of  the  new  movement  gradually  shifted  their 
ground  from  that  of  justice  to  that  of  political  expediency. 
Under  the  leadership  of  a  number  of  determined  women, 
however,  the  nineteenth  amendment  was  passed  which 
marks  the  successful  culmination  of  their  valiant  fight  for 
enfranchisement. 


100 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


WOMEN  VICTORIOUS — AT  THE  POLLS 

The  seventeenth  amendment  had  already  provided  for 
the  direct  election  by  the  people  of  United  States  senators. 
Direct  Previously  they  had  been  elected  by  the  legis- 
eiectionof  latures  of  the  various  states.  Several  political 
scandals  had  served  to  uproot  the  faith  once 
held  in  elected  legislatures.  The  Senate  was  denounced 
by  some  of  its  bold  critics  as  an  "American  oligarchy." 
There  grew  up  a  demand  that  the  senators  should  be  elected 
by,  and  hence  directly  responsible  to,  the  people.  Thus, 
the  method  of  electing  senators  changed  from  the  former 
indirect  method  to  the  present  direct  method  of  election  by 
the  people. 

The  assassination  of  President  Garfield  by  a  disappointed 
office  seeker  hastened  the  national  adoption  of  Civil  Ser- 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  101 

vice   Reform.      Again,  the   cry  for  efficiency  in  govern- 
mental departments  demanded  that  applicants  be  appoint- 
ed according  to  some  recognized  test  of  fitness, 
rather   than    according    to    allegiance   to    the       Service 

J?  .  Reform. 

political  machine.  This  movement  was  not 
confined  to  the  national  government,  but  spread  to 
the  state  and  especially  to  the  city  governments.  The 
Spoils  System  had  given  an  immense  amount  of  patron- 
age to  the  party  in  power,  who  filled  the  public  offices 
with  its  own  followers.  These  letter-.;  were,  in  turn, 
expected  to  get  votes  for  the  political  organization.  „  Qjut 
of  such  a  system  was  evolved  the  politick,  bass.  ,  The  early 
introduction  of  civil  service  tests  was  made  more  difficult 
by  the  tradition  that  rotation  in  office  was  more  democratic. 
This  belief  had  come  down  from  the  days  of  Jackson, 
when  it  was  felt  that  one  citizen  was  nearly  as  well  fitted  as 
any  other  for  a  public  trust.  The  increase  of  governmental 
functions  and  the  technical  nature  of  much  recent  work  of 
the  State  render  such  a  view  no  longer  tenable.  The  ad- 
ministrative work  of  government  has  been  separated  into 
specialized  bureaus,  under  the  direction  of  experts.  Here 
efficiency  is  needed,  not  politics.  Hence  the  need  for  civil 
service  measurements. 

The  introduction  of  the  Australian  or  secret  ballot  was 
a  great  step  forward  in  our  political  evolution.  At  present, 
in  addition  to  this,  the  so-called  short  ballot  is  The  short 
being  strongly  advocated.  This  is  made  neces- 
sary because  the  earlier  democratic  tendencies  increased  the 
number  of  elective  offices.  Longer  and  longer  ballots  are 
placed  before  the  voter,  who  is  asked  to  make  a  selection  of 
men  whom  he  does  not  know  for  offices  concerning  which 
he  is  unfamiliar.  This  has  hindered  rather  than  helped 


io2  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  cause  of  democracy,  because  it  has  made  for  what  is 
known  as  "hide  and  seek"  politics.  It  is  evidently  better 
to  vote  for  but  a  few  important  officers  with  whose  record 
the  voter  can  be  familiar.  They  should  be  given  the  power 
to  appoint  their  subordinates,  for  whose  character  and  work 
they  can  be  held  strictly  accountable  at  the  next  election. 
This  is  known  as  the  principle  of  fixing  responsibility. 
The  long  ballot  has  been  called  the  politician's  ballot  and 
the  short  ballot,  the  people's  ballot. 

<tF}J£  funcUbn$..'i4  the  electorate  have  also  been  enlarged 

by.  such  (Je.vJ£es  p,s.  the-% initiative,  referendum,  and  recall. 

;•":  .*•':-. vTliesaita'kte'i^rious  forms  in  different  states  and 

Initiative 

and  cities.     The    referendum    is    a    device    which 

referendum.  , 

renders  necessary  the  consent  of  the  people  for 
a  particular  piece  of  legislation.  It  was  first  used  for 
constitutional  changes,  but  later  for  such  important 
public  matters  as  the  floating  of  bonded  indebtedness. 
For  these  and  other  purposes  ratification  at  the  polls  by 
the  general  electorate  is  sought.  The  initiative  permits 
the  originating  of  a  piece  of  legislation  by  the  people  directly. 
A  bill  may  be  drawn  up  by  a  number  of  private  citizens. 
If  the  signatures  of  a  sufficient  number  of  voters  are  secured, 
the  bill  must  be  voted  upon  by  the  legislature,  or  submitted 
to  the  people  at  large  by  the  use  of  the  referendum.  Both 
the  initiative  and  referendum  are  illustrations  of  direct 
legislation,  that  is,  legislation  by  the  citizens  themselves 
rather  than  by  their  elected  representatives.  It  is  a 
modern  attempt  to  return  to  pure,  rather  than  represent- 
ative, democracy. 

The  conservatism  of  the  courts,  as  reflected  in  many 
judicial  decisions,  is  responsible  for  the  movement  known 
as  the  recall  or,  more  properly,  the  review  of  judicial 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  103 

decisions.     This  is  a  device  which  permits  the  people  to 
vote  upon  the  social  desirability  of  certain  judicial  decis- 
ions.    If  the  vote  is  unfavorable,  the  judicial  de- 
cision  is  recalled.     Such  an  extreme  step  is  advo-    of  judicial 

,  ,  decisions. 

cated  upon  the  ground  that  court  interpreta- 
tions really  make  law,  whereas  the  people  themselves 
should  be  able  to  decide  the  constitutionality  of  their  acts. 
Hence  the  need  for  some  popular  check  upon  the  courts. 
To  many  thinkers  such  a  step  is  too  drastic,  because  it 
takes  from  the  courts  their  particular  function  of  interpre- 
tation and  no  longer  renders  them  capable  of  making 
independent  decisions  according  to  their  own  view  of  the 
law.  They  believe  the  wiser  plan,  although  the  slower 
course,  would  be  for  public  opinion  to  express  itself, 
through  the  legislature,  by  making  changes  in  the  laws. 
If  necessary,  even  the  process  of  constitutional  amend- 
ment may  be  resorted  to.  The  recall,  however,  has  been 
applied  with  more  approval  to  the  acts  of  officials  in  the 
local  government  units. 

Political  parties  were  extra-constitutional  developments 
and  at  first  were  ignored  by  the  law.  Finally,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  recognize  them  legally  in  order  to  Direct 
cope  with  gross  evils  which  had  developed.  Pnmanes- 
The  nomination  of  political  party  candidates  by  a  few  of 
the  " bosses,"  sitting  in  some  back  room,  could  no  longer 
be  tolerated  by  a  quickened  public  conscience.  Hence  the 
development  of  the  primary  movement.  A  primary,  or 
rather  a  primary  election,  is  one  in  which  the  various 
political  parties  nominate  their  candidates.  The  states 
pass  laws  concerning  the  primary  and  the  method  of 
nominating  party  candidates.  Primary  elections  are  now 
frequently  conducted  in  the  regular  polling  places  by  the 


104  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

regular  election  officers.  In  order  to  vote  in  the  primary 
an  individual  must  state  his  previous  party  affiliations. 
This  merely  means  that  at  the  last  election  he  voted  for 
at  least  a  majority  of  the  candidates  of  the  party  to  which 
he  belongs.  The  voter  is  then  given  the  ballot  of  the 
party  in  which  he  registers.  This  contains  a  number  of 
nominations  for  each  office  and  the  successful  candidate 
for  a  particular  office  is  then  the  party  nominee.  A  citizen 
can  have  his  name  put  on  the  ballot  of  his  party  by  securing 
a  sufficient  number  of  signatures. 

The  Problem  of  Empire. — The  keynote  of  early 
American  foreign  policy  was  struck  in  the  farewell  address 
Earlier  of  our  first  president,  who  was  familiar  with 
isolation.  European  national  jealousies  and  warned  the 
new  nation  to  keep  free  from  entangling  alliances.  Such  a 
policy  was  attempted  during  the  titanic  struggle  between 
England  and  Napoleonic  France.  Neutral  America,  how- 
ever, was  caught  between  these  two  warring  giants  and 
suffered  indignities  which  finally  led  to  the  War  of  1812. 
Meanwhile,  Latin  America,  under  such  national  leaders 
as  Bolivar,  had  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  Spanish 
yoke  and  founding  a  number  of  independent  republics. 
The  Spanish  attempt  at  reconquest  failed,  although  it 
seemed  likely  for  a  time  that  the  Holy  Alliance  might 
intervene  in  America  as  it  had  done  in  Europe.  The  Holy 
Alliance  was  an  understanding  between  Russia,  Prussia 
and  Austria  under  the  leadership  of  Metternich.  It  had 
the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  " status  quo"  and  possibly 
of  returning  to  conditions  existing  prior  to  the  French 
Revolution.  England  regarded  with  suspicion  the  work 
of  the  Holy  Alliance  and  suggested  joint  action  with 
America.  The  United  States,  however,  preferred  inde- 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  105 

pendent  action  and  President  Monroe  issued  the  famous 
doctrine  which  bears  his  name.  The  new  world  was  no 
longer  to  be  regarded  as  a  fit  place  for  European  coloniza- 
tion. Any  attempt  to  extend  her  political  system  here 
would  be  regarded  as  an  unfriendly  act.  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  was  put  to  a  real  test  when  Louis  Napoleon 
sought  to  realize  his  dream  of  a  Mexican  empire.  Upon 
the  conclusion  of  the  Civil  War,  however,  the  French  troops 
were  withdrawn  from  America  at  the  request  of  the  United 
States.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  has  been  variously  inter- 
preted at  various  times.  While  we  have  warned  Europeans 
from  interference  in  the  New  World,  we  have  striven  to  be 
consistent  by  not  participating  in  European  affairs. 
Although  a  cherished  American  tradition,  European  powers 
have  refused  to  recognize  the  Monroe  Doctrine  as  any 
part  of  international  law.  Then,  too,  powerful  nations 
have  developed  in  South  America  who  resent  what  they 
regard  as  a  patronizing  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
"  Colossus  of  the  North." 

The  Spanish- American  War  marked  a  new  epoch  in  our 
history,  because  the  United  States  became  a  world  power 
for  the  first  time.  In  the  Far  East  the  New 
World  came  face  to  face  with  the  Old  World. 
The  Philippine  Islands  and  Porto  Rico  were 
taken  over  from  Spain,  while  the  annexation  of 
Hawaii  had  taken  place  earlier.  Cuba  was  the  ward  of 
the  United  States,  but  she  later  became  an  independent 
republic.  New  political  problems  arose  with  the  growth 
of  empire.  What  was  the  legal  status  of  these  island 
peoples?  Did  not  citizenship  follow  the  flag?  Again, 
there  was  the  cry  for  independence  from  the  Philippines. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  decide  when  a  people  is  ready  for  self- 


106  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

government,  and  dangerous  to  set  them  adrift  before  that 
time.  Meanwhile,  schools,  hospitals,  and  roads  have  been 
built,  and  America  has  sought  to  carry  civilization  into  a 
far  corner  of  the  earth. 

Great  colonial  expansion  by  all  the  world  powers  had 
taken  place  during  the  last  century.  Thus,  the  entire 
The  continent  of  Africa  had  been  partitioned  among 

World  the  various  nations  of  Europe.     Great  Britain 

War 

was  the  first  important  colonial  power  and  at 
present  owns  an  enormous  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Starting  with  earlier  and  more  brilliant  prospects,  Spain, 
as  we  have  seen,  finally  lost  all  her  colonial  possessions  in 
America.  France,  however,  after  her  loss  in  America  suc- 
ceeded in  building  up  a  new  empire  in  Africa.  Germany 
entered  the  race  for  colonies  late  and,  as  the  result  of  the 
World  War,  lost  the  few  which  she  did  possess.  A  new  fac- 
tor has  entered  world  politics  in  the  shape  of  Japan,  who  has 
sought  to  extend  her  dominion  through  Korea  and  China. 
Although  this  colonial  expansion  has  often  carried  civiliza- 
tion to  the  backward  peoples  of  the  earth,  it  has  had  some 
unfortunate  results.  Often  the  contact  with  European 
life  and  the  vices  of  civilization  have  been  fatal  to  the 
natives.  Neither  the  people  nor  their  primitive,  simple 
folkways  could  make  the  necessary  adjustments.  Fre- 
quently colonization  has  meant  exploitation  for  both  the 
natives  and  their  natural  resources.  The  conclusion  of  the 
World  War  has  given  rise  to  the  problem  of  mandatories 
for  backward  peoples.  The  ideal  is  that  of  a  public  trust 
rather  than  a  source  of  profit.  There  has  been  a  wild 
scramble  among  the  leading  industrial  nations  for  new 
sources  of  important  raw  materials  and  for  new  markets 
for  their  finished  goods.  Although  such  action  paved  the 


A  Century  of  Political  Evolution  107 

way  for  the  stupendous  conflict  through  which  we  have 
just  passed,  such  national  rivalries  have,  not  abated. 
The  future  alone  will  disclose  the  part  to  be  played  by  the 
United  States  in  world  affairs.  America  has  never  been 
selfish  in  international  politics.  The  war  showed  that 
the  nation  could  not  and  would  not  dodge  its  responsibility 
as  a  great  world  power.  The  cessation  of  hostilities, 
however,  did  not  remove  the  foreign  situation  from  Ameri- 
can politics.  "Splendid  isolation"  seems  no  longer 
possible,  but  we  shrink  from  active  participation  in  Euro- 
pean affairs.  Sound  and  patriotic  nationalism  must  be 
the  true  basis  of  friendly  international  relationships. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Review  the  territorial  growth  of  America. 

2.  Do  you  believe  immigration  to  be  a  selective  process?  Explain. 

3.  Compare  the  Jeffersonian  with  the  Jacksonian  democracy. 

4.  How  has  the  frontier  affected  the  development  of  American 
democracy? 

5.  Show  how  the  great  inventions  furthered  the  cause  of  union. 

6.  Contrast  the  political  problems  of  an  agrarian  democracy  with 
those  of  an  industrial  democracy. 

7.  Discuss  the  woman  suffrage  issue  from  the  aspect  of  social 
justice  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  political  expediency. 

8.  Name  a  number  of  political  innovations  since  the  Civil  War. 

9.  Show  how  Civil  Service  Reform  is  a  blow  to  the  political 
boss. 

10.  Show  how  the  administrative  departments  of  the  national 
government  require  specialized  experts  and  permanency  of  office. 

11.  Make  out  a  case  for  the  short  ballot. 

12.  Explain  how  the  initiative  and  referendum  operate. 

13.  Show  their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

14.  What  is  your  opinion  regarding  the  desirability  of  the  recall 
of  judicial  decisions.     Defend  your  position. 

15.  Show  how  the  recall  can  be  used  in  local  government. 


io8  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

16.  Explain  the  differences  between  the  primary  and  the  regular 
election  as  to  purpose,  method,  etc. 

17.  How  does  the  direct  primary  work?    State  advantages  and 
disadvantages. 

18.  What  did  the  Monroe  Doctrine  really  say? 

19.  What  is  the  status  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  to-day? 

20.  Should  the  Philippines  be  given  independence?       Why  or 
why  not? 

21.  What  do  you  think  of  the  League  of  Nations? 

22.  Why  did  the  United  States  refuse  to  join  the  League? 

23.  Show  where  and  how  modern  nations  have  exploited  colonial 
possessions.     How  can  these  evils  be  remedied? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  opening  of  the  West. 

2.  The  rise  of  nationalism. 

3.  Political  problems  before  and  after  the  Civil  War. 

4.  History  of  woman  suffrage. 

5.  History  of  Civil  Service  Reform. 

6.  Initiative  and  referendum  in  Switzerland  and  the  United 
States. 

7.  Applications  and  interpretations  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

8.  Provisions  and  text  ot  the  League  of  Nations. 

9.  The  work  of  the  Washington  Conference  in  1921. 

REFERENCES 

BEARD,  C.-A.    American  Government  and  Politics. 
HowE,F.  C.     Why  War? 

MERRIAM,  C.  E.    A  History  of  American  Political  Theories. 
MERRIAM,  C.  E.    American  Political  Ideas — 1865-1017. 
ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE.     The  Winning  of  the  West. 
YOUNG,  J.  T.     The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 

I.  The  city  in  the  past 

1 .  Its  history 

2.  Early  conditions 

II.  Urban  conditions  in  the  United  States 

1 .  Growth  of  American  cities 

2.  The  causes: 

a.  Economic  factors 

b.  Superior  advantages 

3.  City-planning: 

a.  How  handicapped 

b.  The  progress  made 

c.  The  new  plan 

4.  Housing  conditions : 

a.  Congestion 

b.  Results 

c.  Remedies 

5.  Public  health 

6.  Social  conditions 

7.  The  future 
III.  Rural  life 

1 .  The  past 

2.  The  new  area 

While  the  constitutional  development  of  the  American 
State  was  taking  place  throughout  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  while  the  growing  nation  was  gradually  assuming  a 
position  of  importance  in  international  affairs,  an  internal 
movement  of  the  highest  social  significance  was  also  in 

109 


no  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

progress.  This  movement  took  the  form  of  the  concen- 
tration of  great  masses  of  people  in  particular  localities. 
Thus,  with  the  growth  of  large  cities,  a  new  and  potent 
force  appeared  in  American  political,  economic,  and  social 
life.  Urban  development,  however,  has  not  been  peculiar 
to  America,  but  is  a  world  phenomenon  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

The  City  in  the  Past. — Ancient  history  tells  us  of 
some  famous  cities.  The  proud  city  of  Nineveh  was  the 
its  metropolis  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and  Babylon, 

history.  along  whose  walls  several  chariots  could  run 
abreast,  is  said  to  have  had  a  million  inhabitants.  Although 
Athens  has  determined  the  content  of  culture  for  hundreds 
of  years,  its  size  was  insignificant  when  measured  by 
modern  standards.  The  City  of  the  Acropolis  in  the  flower 
of  its  growth  had  perhaps  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants; 
while  Rome,  when  destroyed  by  Nero,  probably  contained 
a  half  million  of  people.  The  Romans,  however,  were 
fond  of  urban  life  and  their  civilization  was  characterized 
by  many  famous  towns.  These  declined  during  the 
Middle  Ages  when  population,  then  largely  rural,  lived 
upon  the  feudal  manors  of  that  day.  The  development  of 
commerce  revived  some  of  the  old  cities  and  stimulated 
the  growth  of  others.  As  the  towns  grew  from  manorial 
villages,  many  purchased  or  forcibly  secured  their  inde- 
pendence from  the  lord  to  whom  allegiance  had  been  due. 
The  Renaissance  was  born  in  the  city-states  of  northern 
Italy,  and  the  Reformation  was  fostered  in  the  free  cities 
of  Germany.  The  cities  of  Europe  continued  to  grow 
slowly  in  size,  but  even  the  great  capitals  of  that  day  were 
insignificant  when  compared  with  their  present  counter- 
parts. As  late  as  1815,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  sat  within 


The  Growth  of  Cities  1 1 1 

the  walled  town  which  had  not  yet  expanded  from  its 
shell.  The  rapid  growth  of  cities  has  taken  place  only 
within  the  last  hundred  years,  in  the  period  following  the 
Industrial  Revolution.  Four-fifths  of  London's  growth 
took  place  during  the  last  century,  and  a  like  expansion  is 
equally  true  of  Paris  and  of  Petrograd.  The  recent 
development  of  Tokio  shows  that  oriental  cities,  affected 
by  western  civilization,  may  experience  a  similar  mushroom 
growth. 

The  medieval  town  was  characterized  by  narrow, 
crooked,  and  unpaved  streets.  Garbage  and  refuse  were 
thrown  from  the  window  often  to  the  discom-  Early 
fort  of  passing  pedestrians.  Street  cleaning  was  condii 
unknown  because  rain  occasionally  accomplished  the 
desired  result.  The  houses  were  gabled  with  projecting 
upper  stories,  which  to-day  still  give  the  picturesque  effect 
of  early  times.  Signs  in  front  of  the  various  shops  pictured 
the  wares  whose  names  few  could  read.  At  night  appren- 
tices fastened  huge  shutters  to  the  front  of  the  shop  and 
the  doors  were  bolted.  Along  the  dark  narrow  streets 
roisterers  were  frequently  attacked  by  footpads,  and  to 
keep  the  peace  a  night-watch,  with  arms  and  lanterns,  was 
employed.  In  later  times  the  night  watch  sang  the  hour 
and  with  it,  perchance,  a  bit  of  scriptural  advice.  Chains 
were  fastened  across  the  streets,  while  the  town  gate  was 
kept  shut  until  sunrise.  The  romance  of  time  has  given 
color  and  picturesqueness  to  the  scene,  but  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  past  were  unpleasant  and,  at  times,  evil  places  as 
compared  with  those  of  modern  days.  With  no  knowledge  of 
sanitation  or  public  hygiene,  the  death  rate  was  enormous. 
Numbers  were  recruited  by  fugitive  serfs  and  by  those 
drawn  thither  by  the  occasional  peace  and  the  possibility 


ii2  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

of  commercial  gain.  Plagues,  like  the  Black  Death,  and 
great  fires,  like  that  of  London,  brought  fearful  destruction 
to  life  and  property. 

Urban    Conditions    in     the     United     States.— The 

United  States  Census  usually  classifies  communities  with  a 

population  of  2500  or  more  as  urban.     There 

American      are  three  such  groups:     (i)    those    having    a 

cities.  . 

population  from  2500  to  25,000,  constituting  a 
small  city;  (2)  those  from  25,000  to  100,000,  classified  as 
medium-sized  cities;  and  (3)  those  over  100,000,  or  large 
cities.  In  1800  there  were  only  five  cities  in  the  United 
States  with  a  population  of  over  10,000;  while  a  century 
later  there  were  six  hundred  cities  of  such  size  or  over. 
Using  the  classification  of  the  national  census  to  designate 
cities,  we  find  that  to-day  our  urban  population  is  a  trifle 
over  one-half  the  total  population.  If,  under  rural  popu- 
lation, we  exclude  all  towns  and  limit  ourselves  to  the 
dwellers  in  the  open  country,  we  find  that  urban  popula- 
tion in  the  United  States  has  increased  six  times  as  rapidly 
as  the  strictly  rural  population.  This  urban  population  is 
concentrated  largely  in  the  northeastern  section  of  the 
United  States.  The  states  of  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Illinois  contain  half  of  our  country's 
total  urban  population.  The  combined  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  States  contain  almost  one-half  of  the  total 
urban  population.  If  we  include  the  North  Central  States, 
the  proportion  is  two-thirds.  It  is  interesting  to  notice 
how  this  distribution  corresponds  to  the  proportion  of 
immigrants  and  of  those  of  foreign  parentage.  Note  also 
that  these  states,  with  few  exceptions,  constitute  our  great 
commercial  and  industrial  centers.  The  southern  and 
western  sections  of  our  country  are  not  only  more  thinly 


The  Growth  of  Cities  113 

populated,  but  their  proportion  of  city  dwellers  is  also 
much  lower  because  of  the  different  nature  of  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  in  those  regions.  A  comparison  with 
European  conditions  will  also  be  interesting.  Although 
European  countries  are  more  densely  populated,  the  pro- 
portion of  city  dwellers  is  not  so  high  as  in  some  of  our 
industrial  states.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  there  has 
been  an  unprecedented  growth  of  cities  since  the  Industrial 
Revolution  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 
In  America  this  growth  has  been  especially  rapid. 

The  Industrial  Revolution,  introducing  the  factory 
system  and  modern  industrialism,  has  been  the  prime  cause 
of  the  development  of  cities.  Cities  have  grown 
up  around  manufacturing  centers,  for  the  2j£es: 
superior  facilities  for  transportation  make  an  Economic 
urban  location  of  industry  advantageous.  Hither 
are  brought  raw  materials,  which  are  converted  into  finished 
products  and  shipped  to  far  distant  places.  Again,  the 
city  furnishes  an  excellent  labor  market.  Since  trade  and 
commerce  are  as  important  as  manufacturing,  the  city  is 
generally  located  upon  some  point  favorable  for  commerce 
and  often  arises  where  a  natural  break  in  transportation 
occurs.  The  famous  cities  of  northern  Italy,  like  Venice 
and  Genoa,  occupied  a  central  position  in  the  commerce  of 
medieval  Europe.  Across  the  Mediterranean,  their  ships 
sailed  to  and  from  the  Orient.  From  them  the  goods  were 
sent  by  the  rivers  of  Germany  and  France  to  points  in 
northern  and  western  Europe.  When  the  commercial 
world  shifted  its  center  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Atlantic,  these  ports  lost  their  strategic  position  and 
suffered  decline.  In  Europe  and  America  we  find  cities 
located  upon  navigable  waters — New  York  upon  a  bay, 
i 


H4  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Chicago  upon  a  lake,  and  San  Francisco  upon  the  coast. 
A  city,  located  upon  a  modern  commercial  route,  may  be 
the  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  local  environment  as  well 
as  the  distributing  point  for  incoming  goods.  Thus, 
Chicago  taps  the  cattle  and  grain  industry  of  the  West, 
and  New  Orleans  exports  much  of  the  cotton  of  the  South. 
New  York,  the  largest  city  in  America,  is  as  cosmopolitan 
in  its  commerce  as  in  its  population. 

The  superior  advantages  of  the  city  constitute  another 
attractive  force.  Higher  wages  and  more  varied  oppor- 
Superior  tunities  lure  many  ambitious  country  lads  to 
advantages.  ^e  c^  wnere  they  seek  fame  and  fortune.  The 
use  of  machinery  in  agriculture  has  also  decreased  the  pro- 
portion of  men  needed  on  the  farm.  The  combined 
harvester  and  reaper  can  do  the  work  of  many  men,  and 
other  agricultural  inventions  have  temporarily  displaced 
scores  of  farm  hands.  The  period  of  adjustment  which  the 
introduction  of  machinery  necessitated  came  later  in  farm- 
ing than  in  manufacturing;  hence  the  exodus  from  farm  to 
city.  The  city  also  offers  superior  educational  advantages. 
Again,  its  varied  life  contains  more  opportunities  for  com- 
fort and  amusement;  for,  until  recently,  modern  pleasures 
and  conveniences,  such  as  are  found  in  city  homes,  did  not 
exist  upon  the  farm. 

So  rapid  has  been  the  development  of  cities  in  America 
that  the  consequences  have  often  been  unfortunate.  No 
one  would  have  dreamed  that  the  site  of  Fort 
planning:  Dearborn  would  become,  in  fifty  years,  the 
§reat  citv  °f  Chicago.  Because  of  the  rapidity 
of  urban  growth,  little  provision  was  made  for 
the  future  development  of  the  city.  Crooked  streets 
naturally  grew  up  along  early  roads,  like  the  cow  paths  of 


The  Growth  of  Cities 


Boston.  Hideous  slums  have  arisen  to  house  the  poorer 
groups  who  have  crowded  into  them.  Incidentally,  how- 
ever, it  might  be  wise  to  realize  that  such  conditions 
existed  also  in  the  great  cities  of  antiquity,  where  over- 
crowding and  its  attendant  evils  were  great.  In  the 


CHICAGO  IN  1832 — FIRST  HOUSE  BUILT  ON  THE  PRESENT  SITE  OF  THE  CITY 

development  of  many  American  cities,  no  system  has 
characterized  municipal  building  operations  and  much  con- 
fusion exists  which  might  otherwise  have  been  avoided. 
River  fronts  -have  been  monopolized  by  manufacturing 
plants,  and  shipping  interests  have  followed  the  line  of  least 
resistance.  Unfortunately,  individual  gain  has  come  before 
civic  beauty  and  welfare,  causing  grotesque  contrasts  in 
buildings,  which  offend  the  eye. 

Europe  saw  the  danger  before  America,  and  continental 
cities  resolved  to  protect  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
city  dweller.     Half  a  century  ago  Paris,  in  spite   The  progress 
of  the  enormous  expense  involved  in  the  demoli-   m<M 
tion  of  valuable  property,  remodeled  itself  by  a  magnificent 


n6 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


©  E'd'hig  Galloway 
CHICAGO  TO-DAY — LOOKING  NORTH  ON  STATE  STREET 

system  of  boulevards.  Washington  is  one  of  the  few 
American  cities  that  was  designed  in  advance  and  properly 
planned  for  future  growth.  Hence  it  has  saved  the  expense 
which  Paris  incurred.  Many  American  cities,  like  Phila- 
delphia, are  facing  a  great  public  expenditure  which  could 
have  been  avoided  by  a  carefully  designed  plan  for  future 


The  Growth  of  Cities  i  iy 

development.  German  cities  are  beautiful  and  well 
planned.  Vienna  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cities  in 
the  world,  while  the  glory  of  Budapest  is  unsurpassed. 
The  water  fronts  of  many  European  cities  are  a  source  of 
beauty,  as  well  as  a  highway  for  commerce  and  industry. 
Splendid  stone  bridges,  monuments,  parks,  and  drives  are 
to  be  found.  The  location  of  industry  is  prescribed  by 
the  municipality,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  water  front 
preserved  for  the  people.  In  some  German  cities  a  zone 
system  has  been  established,  whereby  one  section  is  reserved 
for  factories,  another  for  business  houses,  and  still  another 
for  residences. 

A  comprehensive  planning  of  transportation  lines  and  of 
city  streets  is  highly  advantageous  to  urban  development. 
Many  American  cities  have  followed  the  checker-  The  new 
board  plan  of  William  Penn,  who  is  said  to  have  plan' 
taken  his  idea  from  ancient  Babylon.  This  scheme  is 
simple  and  systematic,  but  it  often  causes  congestion  on 
the  few  streets  that  lead  into  the  central  business  section. 
The  best  plan,  perhaps,  is  to  map  out  the  city  in  the  form 
of  a  wheel.  Its  central  civic  center  would  correspond  to 
the  hub  and  the  main  streets  to  the  spokes,  while  the  cross 
streets  would  be  a  series  of  rings.  The  construction  of 
buildings  should  then  be  planned  in  accordance  with 
principles  of  architectural  beauty  and  symmetry.  Munic- 
ipal buildings  might  well  be  grouped  in  the  civic  center, 
where  the  wide  avenues  and  broad  boulevards  converge. 
Ample  provisions  should  be  made  for  squares,  parks  and 
public  places,  which  serve  not  only  as  sources  of  communal 
pleasure  but  also  as  essential  factors  in  public  health. 
Suburbs  for  the  working  man  at  low  rentals  are  more 
needed  in  the  modern  city  than  villas  for  the  richer  group. 


u8  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Such  a  scheme  in  connection  with  a  system  of  cheap  and 
rapid  transportation  will  materially  help  to  solve  the 
problem  of  mass  congestion.  This  has  been  tried  in  certain 
cities  of  England,  where  a  special  commutation  rate  to 
workers  has  enabled  them  to  live  in  the  outskirts  of  the 
city.  This  plan  seeks  to  prevent,  rather  than  to  cure,  the 
problem  of  congestion. 

The  growth  of  cities  has  been  attended  by  a  development 
of  the  so  called  "slum"  districts.  In  them  the  housing 
Housing  conditions  are  such  as  to  arouse  alarm  for  the 
conditions:  physical  and  moral  condition  of  their  inhabi- 
tants. The  basis  of  this  problem,  like  many 
others,  is  economic;  for,  as  the  city  increases  in  population, 
real  estate  rises  in  value.  The  result  of  this  tendency  is  a 
greater  density  of  population  in  a  given  area.  While  the 
city  has  grown  outward  in  many  districts,  it  has  likewise 
grown  upward  in  others.  Of  this  the  modern  "  sky-scraper  " 
is  witness.  What  has  happened  in  the  business  section  has 
also  taken  place  in  the  congested  living  quarters  of  a  great 
metropolis.  Thus  the  tenement  house  has  sprung  into 
existence.  This  is  a  large  building  or  series  of  buildings 
several  stories  high  and  capable  of  accommodating  a  large 
number  of  families.  The  law  in  New  York  defines  a 
tenement  house  as  the  residence  of  three  or  more  families, 
each  independent  of  the  other  and  each  providing  its  own 
cooking  facilities.  In  factr  the  number  of  cooking  stoves  is 
often  used  to  determine  the  number  of  families.  The 
tenement  house  has  arisen  in  many  of  the  formerly  fashion- 
able quarters  of  the  city  now  converted  into  business 
sections.  As  the  former  inhabitants  have  moved  out,  the 
poorer  groups,  often  foreign  immigrants,  have  occupied 
their  homes.  These  old  houses,  many  of  which  are  fairly 


The  Growth  of  Cities  119 

large,  are  used  to  accommodate  a  number  of  families.  Con- 
gestion may  also  result  from  the  occupancy  of  old  shacks 
in  alleys  unfit  for  human  habitation.  The  problem  of 
housing  is  aggravated  by  the  existence  of  the  lodger.  We 
have  seen  that  with  the  foreign  immigrants  the  number  of 
men  predominates.  Many  of  these  laborers  may  room 
together  or  become  lodgers  with  one  family.  Desire  for 
gain  is  strong  among  this  group  and  that,  as  well  as  poverty, 
has  led  to  very  low  standards  of  living.  Housing  commis- 
sions and  various  charity  organizations  have  discovered 
some  alarming  facts.  Two  or  more  families  often  occupy 
the  same  room,  while  many  beds  are  never  free  from  human 
burdens. 

Congestion  and  bad  housing  conditions  affect  not  only 
physical  health  but  moral  character.     In  the  first  place 
congestion   results   in    the   spreading   of   con- 
tagious diseases,  while  lack  of  air  and  sunshine   The  results. 
permits   the    spread    of    tuberculosis.     " Band- 
box" houses  of  one  room  upon  another,  situated  toward 
the  rear  of  high  buildings,  possess  no  adequate  facilities  for 
light  or  ventilation.     Another  common  evil  is  the  lack  of 
water  and  of  a  proper  system  of  drainage.     Many  families 
use  but  one  hydrant,  and  the  amount  of  washing  enjoyed 
bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  adequacy  and  nearness  of  the 
water  supply.     Drainage  facilities  are  so  inadequate  that 
refuse  water  is  often  emptied  into  a  back  yard,  which  also 
serves  as  a  dumping  ground  for  garbage,  ashes,  and  rubbish. 
Toilet  facilities  are  extremely  inadequate.     Flies  become 
efficient  carriers  of  disease,  while  bacteria  flourish  in  the 
dark,  damp,  and  unclean  environment.     Infant  mortality 
runs  high  in  congested  quarters,  where  hot  summers  and 
cold  winters  reap  a  full  harvest  of  human  life.     The  moral 


120 


Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 


dangers  of  congestion,  although  perhaps  less  apparent,  are 
none  the  less  real.  In  one  small  room,  individuals  of  all 
ages  and  both  sexes  congregate.  Under  these  conditions 
it  is  impossible  to  develop  proper  ideals  of  morality  and 
family  life — the  very  foundations  of  human  society.  Such 
conditions  breed  the  criminal,  the  immoral,  and  the  degen- 
erate element  in  American  society. 

What  remedies  may  be  suggested  for  these  housing  con- 
ditions so  fatal  to  the  life  and  character  of  modern  peoples? 
The  Since  congestion  is  the  root  of  the  evil,  the 

problem  must  be  approached  from  this  stand- 
point.   Either  congestion  itself  must  be  removed  or  its 


WORKWOMEN'S  HOUSES  IN  TEXAS 

evils  mitigated.  The  former  method  has  been  sought  by 
the  advocates  of  comprehensive  city-planning.  According 
to  this  plan,  the  great  congested  quarters  of  the  city  would 
be  denuded  of  their  surplus  population  by  their  removal  to 
suburban  districts,  to  which  adequate  means  of  transporta- 


The  Growth  of  Cities  121 

tion  would  be  established.  The  success  of  this  plan  depends 
upon  its  cheapness.  Unless  rentals  are  reasonable  and 
transportation  rates  low,  the  plan  cannot  succeed.  Again, 
paternalistic  schemes  have  been  tried,  such  as  that  of  the 
Krupps  at  Essen  in  Germany,  and  the  experiment  of  the  Pull- 
man Company  near  Chicago.  Philanthropists,  like  Ruskin 
and  Peabody,  have  also  attempted  to  improve  the  housing 
conditions  of  the  laboring  class.  Where  it  is  impossible  to 
rebuild  the  city,  perhaps  the  most  practical  plan  is  that  of 
strict  government  regulation  and  municipal  inspection  of 
housing  conditions  in  the  more  densely  populated  sections 
of  the  city.  Regulations  must  be  enacted  and  rigidly 
enforced  to  guard  the  health,  comfort,  and  safety  of  those 
living  in  congested  quarters.  A  campaign  of  education 
will  accomplish  much  in  developing  in  the  community  a 
realization  of  "how  the  other  half  live";  while  a  sound 
solution  of  the  problem  of  immigration  will  materially 
lessen  the  evil  of  congestion. 

The  growth  of  the  modern  city  bears  a  vital  relation  to 
the  problem  of  public  health.  We  have  already  seen  the 
effect  of  bad  housing  conditions,  with  all  their  Public 
attendant  evils,  upon  the  health  of  the  con- 
gested sections  of  a  great  city.  But  in  addition  to  proper 
housing  conditions,  many  other  factors  enter  into  the  health 
and  safety  of  urban  populations.  Of  first  importance  is  the 
water  supply.  This  should  be  plentiful  and  free  from  con- 
tamination. Because  of  the  lack  of  proper  waterworks  and 
an  adequate  filtration  system,  many  cities  have  suffered  from 
a  poor  and  contaminated  water  supply.  Again,  it  is 
imperative  for  the  maintenance  of  public  health  that  the 
city  should  be  supplied  with  an  adequate  system  of  under- 
drainage  and  an  effective  sewage  disposal  plant.  The 


122  Problems  of  A  merican  Democra cy 

proper  collection  and  disposal  of  garbage,  together  with 
the  elimination  of  unclean  rubbish,  is  a  most  important 
factor  in  the  maintenance  of  public  health.  A  pure  milk 
supply  is  only  second  in  importance  to  a  clean  water  supply. 
Because  of  carelessness  and  ignorance  in  the  preparation 
of  the  milk  diet,  thousands  of  babies  are  sacrificed  annually 
in  every  great  city.  Pure  food  regulations  and  cold  storage 
restrictions  are  also  made  necessary  by  the  conditions  of 
urban  life.  Protection,  too,  should  be  afforded  against  the 
spread  of  contagious  diseases.  Houses  must  be  fumigated 
to  kill  the  germs  of  tuberculosis,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria, 
and  smallpox.  The  health  department  of  a  great  city 
holds  as  many  lives  in  its  care  as  are  intrusted  to  the  police 
and  fire  departments.  Many  hospitals  maintain  free 
clinics  and  dispensaries,  some  of  which  include  a  special 
social  service  department.  To-day,  in  our  great  cities 
the  public  schools  employ  nurses  and  physicians  to  examine 
the  eyes  and  to  care  for  the  teeth  of  thousands  of  children. 
Likewise,  the  playground  movement  has  begun  and  recrea- 
tion centers  are  located  in  many  school  yards.  Public 
baths  are  a  source  of  both  pleasure  and  bodily  cleanliness, 
while  the  parks  of  the  city  afford  relief  to  the  thousands 
who  never  ask  themselves  where  they  shall  spend  the 
summer. 

The  city  is  the  great  laboratory  for  the  study  of  society. 
Here  are  intensified  the  great  social,  economic,  and  political 
questions  of  the  day.  It  is  not  that  the  city  is  inherently 
Social  more  wicked  than  the  country,  but  that  the  fact 

ins*  of  great  numbers  accentuates  the  problem.  In 
the  densely  settled  metropolis  the  problems  of  immigration 
and  good  citizenship  are  inseparable.  It  is  also  in  the  city 
that  the  negro  problem  shows  some  of  its  worst  evils.  The 


The  Growth  of  Cities  123 

crowding  together  of  whites  and  blacks  often  results  in 
considerable  race  friction  and  disorder  among  the  ignorant 
classes  of  each  race.  Poverty  and  pauperism  are  more 
common  in  the  city  than  in  the  country,  for  many  unfor- 
tunates drift  in  from  the  surrounding  rural  districts. 
Urban  charitable  institutions  support  during  the  winter 
the  migratory  group  which  leaves  with  the  advent  of  spring. 
Many  cases  of  permanent  relief  formerly  lived  in  the  country 
and  came  to  the  city  with  no  definite  means  of  support. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  a  third  of  the  population  of 
many  big  cities  live  below  the  poverty  line,  and  in  some  of 
them  as  high  as  ten  per  cent  have  required  the  assistance 
of  charity.  The  city's  record  of  crime  is  unenviable  and 
is  often  twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  country.  Vice  seems 
associated  with  city  life;  but  illiteracy  is  not  so  great  among 
the  native  born  in  the  city  as  in  the  country. 

But  what  of  the  future?  The  "city  beautiful"  is  the 
ideal  of  those  who  would  remodel  city  life  upon  more 
artistic  lines  by  inaugurating  an  era  of  city-  The 
planning  for  future  development.  A  second  future- 
ideal  centers  in  public  health.  The  examination  of  men  for 
military  service  in  the  great  World  War  has  disclosed 
valuable  statistics  concerning  the  health  of  city  dwellers. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  urban  death  rate  is  shrinking. 
The  city,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  extremely 
unhealthy,  is  becoming  more  sanitary  with  the  advance  of 
scientific  knowledge.  Preventable  disease,  however,  can 
be  still  further  cut  down  by  greater  civic  cooperation.  A 
third  ideal  is  that  of  reform  in  housing  and  committees  of 
citizens  have  determined  that  the  slum  must  be  eliminated 
from  city  life.  The  political  ideal  seeks  a  municipal 
government  which  is  both  efficient  and  democratic.  Some 


124  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

American  cities,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  later  chapter,  have 
already  adopted  a  commission  form  of  government  to 
insure  better  civic  housekeeping.  Let  us  hope  that  the 
future  will  not  bear  out  the  opinion  of  Viscount  Bryce  a 
generation  ago  that  municipal  government  was  the  one 
great  failure  of  American  democracy. 

Rural  Life. — The  more  rapid  increase  of  urban  popu- 
lation as  compared  with  rural  has  already  been  indicated. 
The  The  appeal  of  the  city  to  the  country  boy  was 

past*  ever  present,  and  in  the  past  rural  districts 

were  frequently  drained  of  the  ambitious  element  qualified 
for  future  leadership.  Country  schools  were  often  few  and 
poor,  while  the  school  term  was  shortened  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  farm  life.  Higher  education  could  only  be  obtaiiu  <  1 
in  the  city.  Work  on  the  farm  was  hard  and  the  hours  of  labor 
long.  Indeed,  the  farmer  and  his  family  have  probably 
been  exploited  as  much  as  any  other  element  in  American 
industry.  He  has  patiently  suffered  a  working  day  from 
sunrise  to  sunset,  while  his  wife  has  not  only  performed 
the  chores  of  farm  life,  but  also  reared  large  families. 
The  farmer,  himself,  has  endured  longer  hours  of  work 
than  those  permitted  by  many  trade  unions.  In  the  past, 
his  daughters  and  sons  have  sought  an  escape  in  city  life 
from  the  hard  rigor  of  the  farm. 

In  recent  years,  however,  a  change  has  gradually  taken 
place.  A  decreasing  proportion  of  food  producers  com- 
The  pared  with  food  consumers  has  elevated  the 

new  era.  importance  and  economic  position  of  the  farmer. 
Higher  prices  and  better  living  conditions  combine  to 
make  his  life  more  enjoyable.  No  longer  is  he  necessarily 
confined  and  bound  by  tradition.  The  creation  of  a 
federal  department  of  agriculture  has  been  beneficial  in 


The  Growth  of  Cities  125 

the  dissemination  of  better  methods  of  farming.  Expert 
advice  upon  seeds  and  soils  can  be  had  for  the  asking. 
Education  has  advanced  with  material  prosperity,  and  the 
modern  farmer  is  beginning  to  see  the  value  of  sending  his 
boys  to  school.  The  country  high  school  has  appeared 
upon  the  landscape.  The  rural  free  delivery  of  mail,  the 
newspaper,  and  the  telephone  help  the  farmer  keep  abreast 
of  the  times.  The  mail  order  department  of  the  big  stores 
send  their  catalogues  to  his  door,  while  the  interurban 
electric  trolley  takes  him  quickly  to  town.  Finally,  the 
advent  of  the  automobile  has  produced  better  roads  and 
promoted  sociability.  Thus  the  former  isolation  of 
country  life  is  fast  disappearing. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1 .  Name  and  describe  some  famous  cities  of  antiquity. 

2.  Describe  the  appearance  and  sanitary  conditions  of  medieval 
towns. 

3.  What  modern  industrial  changes  caused  an  unprecedented 
growth  of  cities? 

4.  Give  examples  of  this  growth  among  European  cities. 

5.  Compare  urban  and  rural  development  in  America. 

6.  What  is  the  distribution  of  urban  population  in  the  United 
States? 

7.  What  are  the  causes  of  the  growth  of  cities  in  recent  years? 

8.  Give  the  results  of  such  a  rapid  growth  of  cities. 

9.  What  do  you  mean  by  city-planning? 

10.  How  would  it  help  solve  the  problem  of  congestion? 

1 1 .  Describe  some  conditions  of  bad  housing  with  which  you  are 
familiar. 

12.  Give  the  effects  of  such  conditions  upon  the  public  health  and 
morality. 

13.  Give  some  remedial  suggestions. 

14.  What  do  you  think  of  municipal  tenements  and  corporation 
villages? 


126  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

15.  What  should  housing  legislation  prohibit  and  what  should  \t 
demand? 

1 6.  Show  the  relation  between  public  utilities  and  city  health. 

17.  Show  some  definite  ways  in  which  pure  food  laws  protect  the. 
public  health. 

1 8.  Why  is  a  social  service  department  a  valuable  addition  to  a 
hospital  staff? 

19.  What  social  ills  are  intensified  in  a  city? 

20.  How  do  city  and  country  compare  in  poverty  and  crime? 

21.  What  should  be  the  ideals  of  the  future  city? 

22.  Describe  the  change  which  has  taken  place  in  rural  life. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  rise  of  cities  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

2.  The  Industrial  Revolution  and  the  growth  of  modern  cities. 

3.  Immigration  in  relation  to  cities. 

4.  Housing  conditions  in  your  community. 

5.  Your  water  supply. 

6.  "How  the  other  half  live." 

7.  The  water  fronts  of  French  and  German  cities. 

8.  The  activities  of  a  department  of  public  health. 

9.  City-planning  in  America — its  progress  and  advantages. 
10.  European  versus  American  cities. 

REFERENCES 

BAILEY,  L.  H.     The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  United  States. 

GODFREY,  H.    Health  of  the  City. 

Rns,  J.    How  the  Other  Half  Live. 

ROBINSON,  C.  M.    Modern  Civic  Art. 

ROWE,  L.  S.     Problems  of  City  Government. 

SMITH,  S.  G.    Social  Pathology. 

WEBER,  A.  F.    Growth  of  Cities. 

WILCOX,  D.  F.     The  American  City. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROBLEMS  OF  THE  CITY 

I.  Government  of  the  city 

1.  The  city  as  a  political  unit 

2.  Early  forms  of  government 

3.  Political  corruption 

4.  Commission  form  of  government 

5.  City  manager  plan 
II.  Municipal  activities 

1 .  Recognized  functions 

2.  Public  utilities 

3.  Water  supply 

4.  Gas  and  electricity 

5.  Transportation 

6.  Franchises 

7.  Municipal  ownership 

Government  of  the  City. — The  city  or  borough  is  a 
legal  creation  of  the  commonwealth  in  which  it  is  located. 
It  is  a  municipal  corporation  which  has  been 
given  a  charter  by  the  state  legislature.  The 
charter  contains  the  organization  of  the  city 
government  and  numerous  provisions  specifying 
what  the  city  may  do  and  what  it  may  not  do.  Its  borrow- 
ing power,  for  illustration,  has  legal  limitations.  Although 
a  state  passes  laws,  a  city  can  pass  only  ordinances.  Some 
cities  in  the  United  States  contain  a  greater  population 
than  certain  states.  Nevertheless,  their  citizens  are  not 


127 


128  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

free  to  choose  for  themselves  in  many  matters  of  local 
government.  They  are  dependent  upon  the  state  legis- 
lature, which  is  made  up  of  representatives  of  all  parts  of 
the  commonwealth.  Hence  there  has  grown  up  the  cry  of 
"Home  rule  for  cities."  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  many  municipal  functions  are  of  vital 
interest  to  others  who  do  not  live  inside  the  city.  The 
water  supply  and  the  disposal  of  sewage  are  cases  in  point. 
Another  problem  is  the  occasional  confusion  between  city 
and  county  lines.  Sometimes  the  city  has  grown  so 
enormously  that  it  has  become  practically  coterminous 
with  the  county,  and  yet  the  two  sets  of  offices  have  per- 
sisted. In  England,  when  a  borough  reaches  a  certain 
population,  it  is  then  known  as  a  county  borough  and 
becomes  a  separate  political  unit.  In  the  United  States, 
it  is  possible  for  a  small  community  to  separate  itself 
legally  from  the  township  in  which  it  is  located.  It  then 
becomes  a  chartered  corporation  and  a  unit  of  local  govern- 
ment independent  of  the  township.  Such  municipal  cor- 
porations are  known  variously  as  villages,  towns,  or 
boroughs. 

Early  town  government  in  America  was  modeled  after 
that  of  England.  Not  only  was  the  mayor  elected  by  the 
Early  members  of  the  council,  but  vacancies  in  that 

forms  of       body  were  often   similarly  filled.     Hence   the 

government. 

organization  was  that  of  a  closed  corporation. 
Gradually,  the  citizens  of  the  towns  came  to  elect  not  only 
the  members  of  the  council  but  also  the  mayor.  City 
charters  were  planned  like  those  of  the  state  and  national 
governments  and  usually  provided  for  two  chambers  of 
councils.  The  select  council  generally  had  a  smaller 
membership  than  the  common  council,  and  its  members 


Problems  of  the  City  129 

were  called  aldermen.  Although  the  practice  varied,  the 
mayor  generally  had  a  veto  power.  Recently  there  has 
been  a  tendency  toward  a  smaller  and  one-chambered 
council.  With  a  smaller  number  of  members,  it  is  possible 
to  pay  higher  salaries  and  to  raise  the  personnel  of  the 
membership.  The  large  two-chambered  body  was  not 
only  too  unwieldy,  but  it  also  tended  to  diffuse  responsi- 
bility. As  a  rule,  the  members  of  council  are  elected  from 
municipal  districts  called  wards.  Many  objections  have 
been  raised  to  this  application  of  the  principle  of  geo- 
graphical representation  to  cities.  It  is  held  that  the 
needs  of  different  parts  of  the  city  are  not  sufficiently 
divergent  to  justify  separate  representation,  and  that  the 
best  men  of  the  whole  city  should  be  chosen  irrespective  of 
their  local  residences. 

A  generation  ago,  Viscount  Bryce  regarded  the  city  as 
the  great  failure  of  American  democracy.  It  was  here 
that  the  evils  of  bossism  were  most  glaring.  Political 
Political  leaders,  in  return  for  patronage  and  corruPtion- 
political  favors,  have  been  able  to  control  the  vote  of  the 
majority.  The  city  has  been  divided  by  the  political 
machine  into  smaller  districts,  each  under  the  control  of 
some  office-holder  who  is  responsible  for  " getting  out"  the 
vote  on  election  day.  The  influx  of  great  numbers  of 
ignorant  immigrants  into  the  city  has  made  easier  this 
political  manipulation.  The  administrative  departments 
have  been  frequently  lacking  in  efficiency,  and  the  wheels  of 
justice  have  sometimes  been  clogged.  Finally,  there  has 
been  in  the  past  a  great  waste  of  the  public  funds.  When 
Tweed  was  boss  of  New  York  a  court  house  was  designed 
to  cost  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  Seven 
years  later  it  was  found  that  eight  millions  had  been  spent 

J 


130  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

and  that  the  building  had  not  yet  been  completed.  As  late 
as  1908  an  investigation  revealed  the  fact  that  the  police 
department  was  paying  twenty-one  cents  a  pound  for 
nails,  which  any  citizen  could  purchase  for  five  cents  a 
pound.  Cheap  five-cent  coat  hooks  were  being  put  up  at 
a  cost  of  over  two  dollars  apiece.  The  awarding  of  munic- 
ipal contracts  to  political  favorites  has  given  rise  to  the 
expression  of  "contractor  rule."  Municipal  finances  have 
often  been  poorly  managed  and  great  debts  incurred. 
Bonds  have  sometimes  been  issued  to  meet  current  expenses, 
as  well  as  to  pay  for  permanent  improvements. 

A  new  type  of  municipal  government  came  into  existence 
with  the  Galveston  flood  of  1901.   The  city  had  been  rather 
extravagantly  administered   under  the  mayor- 
council  type  of  government.     Deficits  had  been 


regularly  met  by  borrowing.  The  flood  caused 
great  loss  of  life  and  property.  The  munici- 
pality seemed  incapable  of  meeting  the  catastrophe  and 
restoring  the  public  credit.  A  new  charter  was  therefore 
granted  the  city,  which  provided  for  a  commission  form  of 
government.  The  entire  control  over  the  government  of 
the  city  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  five  commissioners  who 
held  both  executive  and  legislative  power.  They  not  only 
passed  ordinances  for  the  city,  but  also  were  in  charge  of 
the  administrative  departments.  In  many  forms  of  com- 
mission government,  each  commissioner  directs  the  work  of 
some  one  department  of  the  city  government.  The 
presiding  officer  is  frequently  in  charge  of  finances. 
Although  the  commissioners  are  elected  by  the  people  of 
the  city,  the  mayor  is  chosen  later  from  among  his  fellow 
commissioners,  who  then  proceed  to  divide  the  work  of 
the  various  departments  among  themselves.  Such  a  plan 


Problems  of  the  City  13 1 

has  been  termed  an  attempt  to  give  the  city  a  business 
administration,  but  has  been  successfully  operated  thus 
far  only  in  our  smaller  cities.  The  success  of  the  Gal- 
veston  plan  resulted  in  its  adoption  by  many  other  cities. 
It  is  a  device  by  which  responsibility  is  fixed  in  the  hands 
of  a  few  people,  who  are  known  to  the  community  and 
whose  work  can  be  closely  watched.  Des  Moines  copied 
the  general  plan,  but  added  the  initiative  and  referendum 
as  an  aid  to  direct  legislation. 

The  city  manager  plan  is  an  adaptation  of  the  com- 
mission form  of  municipal  government.     Here  the  com- 
missioners do  not  attempt  to  administer  directly 
any  of  the  departments  of  the  city  government,    manager 

pl&u* 

They  merely  determine  the  general  policy  to  be 
followed  and  leave  the  actual  administration  to  some  pro- 
fessional expert  whom  they  have  chosen.  In  this  respect, 
we  observe  a  resemblance  to  the  directors  of  a  corporation 
and  the  salaried  superintendent  of  their  plant.  The  city 
manager  generally  has  the  power  to  appoint  the  adminis- 
trative officers  under  him  and,  in  this  way,  can  be  held 
responsible  for  the  efficiency  of  the  various  departments. 
On  the  other  hand  the  city  manager  is  an  employee  of  the 
city  commissioners,  who  can  dismiss  him  when  dissatisfied 
with  his  municipal  administration.  An  amendment  added 
to  the  constitution  of  Ohio  in  1912  permitted  cities  to 
draft  their  own  constitutions,  and  the  city  of  Dayton  chose 
the  city  manager  plan.  Here,  as  in  Galveston,  a  flood  was 
partially  responsible  for  a  political  readjustment.  The 
Dayton  charter  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  city 
manager  plan.  In  this  form  of  government  there  is  a 
commission  consisting  of  five  members,  elected  for  four 
years  from  the  city  at  large.  They  pass  ordinances,  fix 


132  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  tax  rate,  approve  appropriations,  and  elect  a  city 
manager  to  run  the  administrative  departments.  There 
are  also  provisions  providing  for  the  initiative,  referendum, 
and  recall. 

Municipal  Activities. — No  matter  what  form  the  city 
government  takes,  there  are  certain  fundamental  depart- 
Recognized  ments  for  which  provision  must  be  made.  In 
functions.  tne  firgt  piace?  tne  municipality  must  protect 

the  lives  and  property  of  its  citizens.  Hence  we  have  the 
department  of  public  safety  with  its  police  and  fire  bureaus. 
The  development  of  a  uniformed  police  force  organized 
upon  a  military  basis  was  a  gradual  evolution  from  the 
earlier  days  of  night  watchmen  and  constables.  So,  too, 
the  present  engines  for  fighting  fire  are  very  different  from 
the  hand-pulled  and  operated  machines  of  a  generation  ago. 
Other  municipal  departments  are  those  of  transportation 
and  public  works.  Bridges  and  highways  must  be  built 
and  kept  in  repair,  while  the  city  is  also  responsible  for  the 
construction  of  sewers  and  the  disposal  of  the  sewage. 
It  must  own  and  keep  in  repair  its  own  pipe  lines  and 
sewage  disposal  plant.  The  cleaning  of  the  streets  and 
the  collection  of  refuse  are  legitimate  functions  of  the 
city.  Some  municipalities  have  awarded  this  work  to 
private  contractors,  but  the  practice  is  disappearing. 
Other  important  city  departments  are  those  of  health, 
charities,  and  education,  for  these  are  vital  functions  in 
any  democracy.  To  pay  for  all  these  municipal  activities 
great  sums  of  money  must  be  raised.  The  tax  upon  real 
estate  is  the  chief  source  of  revenue  for  the  local  govern- 
ment. The  appropriations  for  some  of  our  larger  cities 
are  even  greater  than  those  of  a  number  of  our  common- 
wealths. Hence,  there  is  the  necessity  for  an  adequate 


Problems  of  the  City  133 

budget  system  and  some  standardized  methods  of  account- 
ing. Of  recent  years  there  have  come  into  existence  in 
various  cities  bureaus  of  municipal  research.  These 
organizations,  which  are  privately  financed  and  directed, 
study  municipal  problems  and  make  suggestions  for  civic 
betterment.  A  new  day  may  be  dawning  in  municipal 
affairs  in  which  men  will  proudly  say  in  the  words  of  the 
Apostle  Paul,  "I  am  a  citizen  of  no  mean  city." 

Besides  the  recognized  municipal  functions  which  the 
city  cannot  escape,  there  are  other  activities  of  a  semi- 
public  nature.  These  include  the  furnishing  of  Public 
water,  gas,  electricity,  and  the  means  of  trans-  utili 
portation  and  communication.  Although  frequently  per- 
formed by  private  corporations,  the  nature  of  the  service 
here  rendered  is  so  essential  to  the  community  that  some 
sort  of  government  regulation  is  imperative.  Hence  the 
term  public  utility  is  applied  to  this  group  of  necessities. 
If  the  commodity  or  service  were  not  essential,  the  public 
could  cease  its  consumption.  When  there  is  no  possibility 
of  substitution,  however,  "Mr.  Common  People"  must 
accept  the  service  rendered  and  pay  the  price  demanded. 
Besides  these  social  and  political  characteristics,  there  is 
an  economic  aspect  of  the  problem.  Public  utilities  are 
natural  monopolies,  that  is,  their  very  nature  makes  com- 
petition impracticable.  For  illustration,  it  would  be  very 
costly  to  build  parallel  trolley  lines  or  to  install  water 
pipes  of  separate  companies  on  the  same  street.  Compet- 
ing telephone  companies  in  the  same  city  not  only  make 
necessary  a  duplication  of  poles,  wires,  and  exchange 
stations,  but  also  force  individuals  to  subscribe  to  both 
companies  in  order  to  secure  effective  service.  Competi- 
tion between  public  service  corporations  has  proved  disas- 


134  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

trous  in  the  past.  They  have  finally  been  forced  tc 
combine  and  to  raise  the  rates  in  order,  not  only  to  recom- 
pense themselves  for  the  cheap  rates  during  the  period  of 
competition,  but  also  to  pay  for  the  duplication  of  equip- 
ment. For  these  reasons  public  service  commissions  have 
frequently  refused  to  grant  a  franchise  to  a  new  public 
service  corporation  when  another  similar  company  was 
operating  in  the  same  district. 

The  importance  of  a  pure  and  adequate  water  supply  to 
the  community  makes  this  service  an  essential  public 
Water  utility.  With  the  growth  of  cities,  it  has  become 
supply.  increasingly  difficult  to  find  a  source  of  water 
which  is  both  adequate  in  supply  and  free  from  impurities. 
Rivers  are  regarded  with  suspicion  because  other  cities 
farther  up  the  stream  may  have  used  the  channel  for 
sewage  disposal.  The  city  of  Los  Angeles  brings  its  water 
through  huge  conduits  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  down  the  mountains  and  across  the  desert.  Inci- 
dentally this  also  furnishes  a  source  of  hydro-electricity. 
Other  cities  dependent  upon  rivers  have  built  great  filtra- 
tion plants  and  costly  pumping  stations.  Bacteriological 
tests  are  made  and  the  water  is  sometimes  scientifically 
treated  to  safeguard  the  health  of  the  city.  Because  of 
the  close  relationship  of  the  water  supply  to  the  public 
health,  most  cities  own  their  own  waterworks.  A  second 
consideration  is  that  of  cost  to  the  consumer.  Often  the 
revenue  from  the  water  tax  is  insufficient  to  pay  for  the 
cost  of  the  service.  The  water  department  may  show  a 
deficit  which  must  be  made  up  in  other  ways.  Water 
meters  are  excellent  preventives  of  waste,  but  unfortunate 
in  so  far  as  they  discourage  the  use  of  water  on  the  part  of 
the  poorer  citizens. 


Problems  of  the  City  135 

Gas  was  used  as  an  illuminant  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  lighting  of  the  streets  decreased  the  amount 
of  crime  and  helped  make  the  modern  city  a  more  Gas  and 
pleasant  place  in  which  to  live.  The  history  of  gas  electricity- 
service  as  a  public  utility  is  interesting  and  varied.  Different 
cities  have  made  numerous  experiments.  At  first  private 
companies  were  chartered  and  given  very  liberal  franchises. 
Later  many  cities  bought  the  gas  plants,  and  tried  municipal 
ownership  and  operation.  No  generalization  can  be  made, 
however,  for  some  cities  succeeded  while  others  signally 
failed.  The  development  of  electricity  has  overshadowed 
the  use  of  gas  as  an  illuminant.  Electric  lighting  dates 
from  the  year  1880.  Before  the  close  of  the  last  century 
numerous  electric  plants  had  been  established.  Although 
some  cities  have  manufactured  their  own  electricity,  most 
of  them  found  it  more  economical  to  purchase  it  from  great 
electric  power  companies.  Because  of  its  increasing 
industrial  uses,  the  manufacture  of  electricity  in  recent 
years  has  been  accomplished  on  a  very  large  scale.  No 
limit  can  be  set  to  the  possibilities  of  electricity,  and  future 
generations  may  regard  the  supply  of  electric  current  as 
vital  as  the  water  supply.  Hence  the  rates  and  the 
character  of  the  electric  service  must  be  carefully  supervised 
by  public  service  commissions.  Electricity  cannot  be 
stored  in  tanks  like  gas,  but  is  produced  instantaneously 
with  the  demand.  The  industrial  need  during  the  day 
balances  the  demand  at  night  for  lighting  purposes. 
Nevertheless,  the  problem  of  supply  is  difficult  of  adjust- 
ment, and  the  steady  consumer  is  favored  in  rate  making. 
Electricity  for  the  lighting  of  the  city  is  sometimes  furnished 
at  a  very  low  rate,  in  return  for  certain  privileges  in  the 
franchise  given  to  the  company. 


136  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  development  of  municipal  transportation  in  America, 
since  the  first  street  car  line  was  operated  in  Baltimore  in 
Transpor-  I&59>  has  been  signalized  by  marked  improve- 
tation.  ments.  The  horse  and  cable  cars  gradually 
gave  way  to  the  electric  trolley.  English  cities  still  cling 
to  the  bus,  which  seems  adapted  to  their  narrow,  crowded 
streets.  Recent  years  have  seen  the  development  in 
America  of  the  subway  and  the  elevated  railroad.  As 
each  city  grew,  the  separate  car  lines  in  it  were  merged 
into  a  great  system.  In  the  history  of  the  various  mergers 
all  sorts  of  "high  finance"  are  illustrated.  Some  of  the 
early  lines  had  been  given  such  favorable  franchises  that 
they  made  enormous  profits.  In  taking  them  over,  later 
companies  were  forced  to  guarantee  high  earnings  to  the 
original  companies.  The  evil  of  stock  watering  appeared, 
and  the  public  found  it  difficult  to  get  lower  fares.  Public 
service  commissions,  therefore,  came  into  existence.  These 
public  bodies  are  empowered  to  pass  upon  the  quality  of 
the  service.  They  may  also  determine  what  is  an  equitable 
fare  and  what  is  a  proper  rate  of  profit  for  the  investors. 
In  Europe,  as  contrasted  with  America,  public  ownership 
of  tramways  has  been  the  rule.  In  order  to  facilitate 
rapid  transit  in  our  growing  cities,  some  American  munici- 
palities have  tried  the  experiment  of  building  their  own 
subways  and  elevated  railroads  and  of  leasing  them  to 
private  companies  to  operate. 

The  city  is  given  by  the  commonwealth  the  right  to 
make  a  contract  with  a  private  corporation  granting  it  the 
Franchises  "^  to  ^o  certain  things.  Such  a  contract, 
called  a  franchise,  is  made  for  a  limited  number  of 
years.  The  franchise  may  impose  conditions  upon  the 
company,  such  as  the  repairing  of  the  streets,  the  quality  and 


Problems  of  the  City  137 

the  cost  of  the  service  rendered,  and  the  payment  to  the  city 
of  certain  charges  for  the  right  to  operate.  In  the  past 
franchises  have  often  been  given  away  with  little  regard 
for  the  public  interest.  Political  influence  in  councils,  or 
the  legislature,  have  sometimes  influenced  the  terms  con- 
tained in  them.  Many  valuable  privileges,  for  which  later 
commercial  companies  would  have  paid  a  handsome  price, 
were  given  away  or  sold  at  a  very  low  figure.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  conditions  imposed  have  not  proved  a  sufficient 
safeguard  against  the  exploitation  of  the  city  and  the  con- 
sumer. Perhaps  the  worst  feature  was  the  long  term  for 
which  the  franchise  was  often  granted.  Franchises  were 
permitted  to  run  for  ninety-nine,  and  sometimes  for  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-nine,  years.  No  generation,  however, 
should  have  the  right  to  limit  the  freedom  of  choice  of 
future  generations  because  conditions  change  so  materially 
with  the  lapse  of  time.  It  is  fair  to  both  corporation  and 
public  that  no  franchise  should  be  granted  for  a  longer 
period,  perhaps,  than  thirty  years.  At  the  end  of  the 
period  specified,  the  city  should  have  the  right  to  purchase 
the  plant  of  the  public  utility  company  at  a  fairly  appraised 
valuation. 

Municipal  ownership  in  America  is  limited  principally  to 
waterworks  and  occasionally  to  lighting  plants.     Europe 
has  gone  further  in  the  public  ownership  of    Municipal 
means   of   communication  and   transportation.    owne 
In  Germany,  slaughter  houses  and  milk  depots  are  munic- 
ipalized to  a  rather  large  extent.     American   cities  are 
just  beginning  to  own  their  own  water  fronts  and  to  con- 
struct municipal  docks.     Merely  because  municipal  owner- 
ship has  worked  in  a  number  of  European  cities,  however, 
is  no   guarantee  that  it  will  be  successful  in  American 


138  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

municipalities.  The  advocates  of  public  ownership  claim 
that,  with  the  elimination  of  private  profit,  the  service 
rendered  will  be  much  cheaper.  Moreover,  the  social 
results  might  prove  beneficial  in  that  success  would  no 
longer  be  read  in  the  form  of  high  dividends,  but  rather  in 
terms  of  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number.  Ameri- 
can experience  in  public  ownership  has  not  always  shown 
that  these  desirable  things  have  followed.  Cheaper  and 
better  service  has  not  always  been  obtained.  Lax  business 
methods,  extravagance,  and  political  corruption  have 
sometimes  occurred.  The  opponents  of  public  ownership 
claim  that,  under  such  a  regime,  the  consumer  will  endure 
evils  to  which  he  would  not  submit  under  private  owner- 
ship. A  compromise  in  the  form  of  municipal  ownership 
and  private  operation  has  been  suggested.  At  least  some 
form  of  regulation  is  necessary,  and  most  states  have 
established  public  service  commissions  for  this  purpose. 
Each  city  and  each  public  utility  present  an  individual 
problem.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  generalize  upon  the 
merits  of  municipal  ownership  as  an  undeviating  principle 
of  democracy. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  the  legal  relationship  between  the  state  and  the  city? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  home  rule  for  cities? 

3.  Name  some  other  units  of  local  government  besides  the  city. 

4.  What  are  some  important  differences  in  governmental  organi- 
zation? 

5.  How  do  the  functions  of  rural  government  differ  from  those 
of  a  big  city? 

6.  Outline  the  development  of  the  mayor-council  type  of  city 
government  in  America. 

7.  Name  some  of  the  fundamental  administrative  departments  of 
a  city  and  show  what  each  does. 


Problems  of  the  City  139 

8.  Show  how  the  commission  form  of  city  government  differs 
from  the  early  form  of  municipal  government. 

9.  What  are  the  similarities  and  differences  between  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  and  the  city  manager  plan? 

10.  What  have  been  some  causes  of  the  past  maladministration  of 
city  government? 

1 1 .  Do  you  think  there  has  been  any  recent  improvement?    What? 
Why? 

12.  What  are  public  utilities  and  why  are  they  so  called? 

13.  Justify,  if  possible,  their  monopoly  position. 

14.  What  does  your  city  or  town  do  to  insure  a  safe  and  adequate 
supply  of  water  for  its  citizens? 

15.  Show  the  stages  in  the  development  of  municipal  transporta- 
tion. 

16.  What  is  a  public  service  commission?     What  powers  should 
it  have? 

17.  What  are  the  mistakes  that  have  been  made  in  granting 
franchises? 

1 8.  What  suggestions  can  you  make  in  this  regard? 

19.  Compare  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  municipal 
ownership  of  public  utilities. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  charter  of  your  own  or  some  neighboring  city. 

2.  The  development  of  the  commission  form  of  government  in 
American  cities. 

3 .  The  government  of  some  city  which  illustrates  the  city  manager 
plan  of  municipal  government. 

4.  Proportional  representation. 

5.  Bureaus  of  municipal  research. 

6.  The  history  of  city  lighting. 

7.  Influence  of  the  Federal  Constitution  upon  municipal  charters. 

REFERENCES 

BEARD,  C.  A.    American  Government  and  Politics. 
FAIRLIE,  J.  A.     Municipal  Administration. 
GOODNOW,  F.  J.     Municipal  Problems. 


140  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

HOWE,  F.  C.     The  City:  the  Hope  of  Democracy. 

MAGRUDER,  F.  A.     The  American  Government  in  1921. 

OGG,  F.  A.     Governments  of  Europe. 

ROWE,  L.  S.     Problems  of  City  Government. 

YOUNG,  J.  T.     The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work. 

ZEUBLIN,  C.    American  Municipal  Progress. 


CHAPTER  XII 

OUR  INCREASING  POPULATION 

I.  Growth  of  population 

1 .  Its  importance 

2.  Its  modern  increase: 

a.  Early  conditions 

b.  Causes  of  increase 

3.  Laws  of  population: 

a.  Theory  of  Malthus 

b.  Modern  opinion 

4.  In  foreign  countries 

5.  In  the  United  States 
II.  Distribution  of  population 

1.  Geographical 

2.  Other  methods : 

a.  Race 

b.  Nativity 

c.  Sex 

d.  Age 
III.  Vital  statistics 

1.  Meaning 

2.  A  falling  birth  rate: 

a.  In  Europe 

b.  In  America 

c.  The  causes 

3.  A  falling  death  rate: 

a.  The  reasons 

b.  Other  influences 

141 


142  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  Growth  of  Population.  —  The  political  evolution 
and  territorial  expansion  of  the  United  States  during  the: 
itsim-  nineteenth  century  were  accompanied  by  an 
portance.  equally  striking  increase  in  population.  When 
independence  was  achieved,  our  people  numbered  but  a 
scant  three  millions.  To-day  the  population  of  continental 
United  States  has  crossed  the  hundred  million  mark. 
All  other  things  being  equal,  the  relative  importance  of  a 
nation  tends  to  advance  with  an  increase  in  numbers. 
Assuming  that  the  quality  of  the  population  has  not 
deteriorated,  an  increase  or  decrease  in  its  quantity  is  an 
important  factor  in  group  survival.  A  nation  may  increase 
in  numbers  either  by  a  surplus  of  births  over  deaths  or  by 
immigration  from  without.  Both  methods  have  been 
important  in  the  development  of  American  population. 
Before  tracing  in  turn  each  of  these  two  factors,  let  us 
note  a  few  interesting  phases  of  the  general  problem  of 
population. 

While  no  reliable  statistics  are  available,  it  is  generally 

believed  that  the  population  of  Europe  during  the  Middle 

Ages    was    stationary.     Conditions    prevented 

increase:™1    any  considerable  growth  of  numbers,  for,  while 


feudal  warfare  devastated  the  crops,  famine  and 
pestilence  swept  the  land.  The  few  walled  towns 
and  cities  of  that  time  were  filthy,  unsanitary  and  congested 
centers  through  which  the  Black  Plague  could  make 
terrible  headway.  In  spite  of  the  enormous  death  rate,  a 
correspondingly  high  birth  rate  kept  medieval  population 
up  to  the  limit  fixed  by  the  productivity  of  the  land. 
This  was  not  great,  however,  for  the  area  under  cultivation 
was  small  and  the  methods  of  farming  crude.  When  the 
Council  of  Clermont  preached  the  First  Crusade  in  1095, 


Our  Increasing  Population  143 

one  argument  advanced  in  its  favor  was  that  it  offered  a 
means  of  escape  from  over  population  in  France.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  and  during  modern  times,  until  the 
opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  population  increased 
comparatively  slowly. 

During  the  last  century,  however,  a  remarkable  increase 
took  place  in  the  population  of  the  civilized  world.  From 
1 800  to  1 900  European  Russia  increased  in  popula-  causes  oj 
tion  from  forty  to  one  hundred  six  millions,  Ger-  tncrease- 
many  from  twenty-seven  to  fifty-six,  France  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty-nine,  and  Great  Britain  from  twenty-five  to  forty- 
two  millions.  Increase  of  population  means  a  surplus  of 
births  over  deaths,  and  this  surplus  during  the  nineteenth 
century  was  due  to  a  fall  in  the  death  rate  rather  than  to  a 
rise  in  the  birth  rate.  The  advance  of  medical  science  and 
of  public  hygiene  has  prolonged  human  life  by  cutting  down 
the  death  rate.  Again,  during  the  last  century,  the 
existence  of  a  larger  population  on  a  given  area  was  made 
possible  by  improved  economic  conditions  due  to  various 
inventions  and  discoveries.  No  longer  did  a  third  of  the 
land  lie  fallow  as  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  rotation  of  crops 
was  practiced.  Increased  knowledge  of  agriculture  and 
new  inventions,  such  as  the  machine  plow  and  the  com- 
bined harvester  and  reaper,  multiplied  many  times  the 
food  supply.  Finally,  the  geographical  area  for  produc- 
tion has  been  widened.  The  great  plains  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, of  South  America,  of  South  Africa,  and  of  Australia 
have  been  developed.  These  vast  regions,  originally 
possessed  by  a  very  sparse  native  population,  are  now 
producing  foodstuffs  for  the  increasingly  dense  popula- 
tion of  Europe. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 


144  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

close  connection  between  growth  of  population  and  increase 
of  food  supply.  Because  of  this  relationship,  writers  have 
been  tempted  to  lay  down  laws  of  population.  Thus,  in 
1798,  an  English  economist  named  Thomas  Mal- 
popuSation:  thus  published  "An  Essay  on  Population."  He 


originally  contended  that  while  food  supply  in- 
creased only  in  an  arithmetical  progression,  popu- 
lation tended  to  increase  in  a  geometrical  ratio.  This  theory 
was  later  modified  to  the  mere  assertion  that  population 
tended  to  increase  faster  than  the  food  supply.  Positive 
checks  upon  population  are  those  factors  which  increase  the 
death  rate.  Good  examples  of  these  are  war,  pestilence,  and 
famine.  Negative  or  preventive  checks  are  those  which 
decrease  the  birth  rate,  such  as  the  higher  age  of  marriage, 
and  the  development  of  a  feeling  of  responsibility.  Such 
in  brief  was  the  theory  of  Thomas  Malthus,  who  believed 
the  source  of  most  human  misery  lay  in  the  tendency  of 
population  to  outstrip  the  means  of  subsistence.  His 
writings  were  so  widely  read  that  there  soon  grew  up 
around  him  a  pessimistic  school  of  philosophers.  Little 
hope  was  held  for  the  future  of  society,  and  war,  famine, 
and  pestilence  were  regarded  as  necessary  evils  to 
keep  down  surplus  population.  The  very  century  in 
which  Malthus  died  disproved  his  melancholy  theory, 
mentioned  here  merely  because  of  its  historical  impor- 
tance. As  we  have  seen,  not  only  were  new  areas  of 
production  opened,  but  also  upon  old  lands  intensive 
farming  was  practiced.  A  progressive  society,  character- 
ized by  invention  and  cooperation,  can  set  no  arbitrary 
limit  to  its  productivity.  Again,  the  same  century  pro- 
duced a  falling  birth  rate  which,  as  a  negative  check, 
makes  unnecessary  the  operation  of  such  positive  checks 


Our  Increasing  Population  145 

as  war  and  famine  in  the  process  of  adjusting  population 
to  food  supply. 

It  may  be  stated  that,  while  the  growth  of  population  is 
limited  by  food  supply  and  general  economic  conditions, 
it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  exact  laws  upon  Modern 
the  subject.  Savages  in  the  hunting  and  fishing  °^nion- 
stage  do  not  develop  a  dense  population.  The  American 
Indians  were  probably  not  more  numerous  in  the  days  of 
Columbus  than  at  present,  but  had  apparently  reached 
their  maximum  growth  of  population.  A  whole  continent 
can  support  only  a  sparse  population  so  long  as  it  is  used  as 
a  hunting  ground.  When  the  pastoral  stage  is  reached  a 
given  area  will  support  more  people,  but  a  wandering  life 
necessitates  large  areas  inadequately  developed.  A  fairly 
dense  population  only  develops  when  the  agricultural 
stage  is  reached.  The  fourth  stage,  that  of  commerce  and 
manufacturing,  has  produced  a  congestion  in  cities  and  a 
density  of  population  unparalleled  in  history. 

The  1920  census  found  over  117,000,000  people  living 
under  the  American  flag,  105,000,000  of  whom  resided  in 
continental  United  States.  In  point  of  numbers  China 
with  its  four  hundred  millions  comes  first.  Should  this 
nation  take  hold  of  western  civilization  as  did  Japan,  it  is 
destined  to  become  a  mighty  factor  in  the  world  of 
to-morrow.  We  have  already  compared  the  populations 
of  the  nations  of  western  Europe  in  1800  with  the  figures 
for  1900  and  have  seen  the  remarkable  increase  during 
the  past  century.  Let  us  now  compare  the  latter  figures 
with  those  for  1910  before  the  calamitous  destruction  of 
life  wrought  by  the  World  War  interfered  with  the  normal 
growth  of  population. 

In  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  European 

K 


146  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Russia  jumped  from  one  hundred  six  to  one  hundred 
thirty-four  millions,  Germany  from  fifty-six  to 
countries!  sixty-five,  France  from  thirty-nine  to  thirty-nine 
and  one-half  millions,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
from  forty-two  to  forty-five,  Austria  from  forty-five  to 
forty-nine,  Italy  from  thirty-two  to  thirty-five,  Spain  from 
eighteen  and  one-half  to  nineteen  and  one-half  millions,  and 
continental  United  States  from  seventy-six  to  ninety-two 
millions.  Looking  over  the  figures  for  Europe  we  notice 
first  of  all  that,  generally  speaking,  there  seems  to  be  in  this 
decade  no  diminution  in  the  rapid  rate  of  increase  which 
marked  the  last  century.  In  the  second  place,  the  rate  of 
increase  varies  greatly  in  the  different  countries  and,  if 
continued,  this  difference  will  greatly  affect  their  future 
relative  importance.  In  spite  of  a  high  death  rate,  Russia 
leads  the  list  because  of  an  enormous  birth  rate.  Thus 
that  nation  when  stabilized  may  become  a  still  greater 
factor  in  future  European  politics,  although  a  high  birth 
rate  and  a  high  death  rate  indicate  a  relatively  backward 
civilization.  France  and  Germany  afford  an  interesting 
comparison.  While  Germany  comes  second  in  rate  of 
increase,  France  is  last  in  the  list,  for  her  population  is 
little  more  than  stationary.  If  the  ratios  for  the  first 
ten  years  are  typical  of  the  century,  the  relative  im- 
portance of  these  nations  will  be  greatly  affected.  A 
century  from  now,  a  country  of  forty  million  people  will 
be  of  little  more  importance  than  Holland  or  Belgium 
is  at  present. 

Immigration  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
enormous  increase  in  the  population  of  the  United  States. 
At  the  time  when  our  independence  was  achieved  there 
were  about  three  million  people  inhabiting  the  thirteen 


Our  Increasing  Population 


147 


original  states.     Since  then,  in  every  generation  of  thirty 
years,  our  population  has  doubled  itself.     Natu- 
rally the  increase  has  been  greatest  in  the  newer 
states  of  the  West.     The  following  table  shows 
the  result  of  each  census : 


In  the 
States. 


—    3,929,214 

1800—  5,308,483 

1810 —    7,239,881 

1820—  9,638,453 
1830 — 12,866,020 
1840—17,069,453 
1850—23,191,876 


1860  — 
1870  — 
1880  — 
1890  — 
1900  — 
1910  — 


31,443,321 
38,558,371 
50,155,783 
62,947,714 
75,994,575 
91,972,266 


1920—105,708,771 


There  is  also  a  very  interesting  relation  between  the 
increase  of  population  by  native  birth  rate  and  that  by 
foreign  immigration,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  following 
table: 


YEAR 

PER  CENT  OF 
TOTAL  INCREASE 

PER  CENT 
BY  IMMIGRATION 

PER  CENT 
BY  BIRTH 

1840 

32.67 

4.66 

28.01 

1850 

35.87 

10.04 

25.83 

1860 

35.58 

II.  12 

24.46 

1870 

22.63 

7-25 

15.38 

1880 

30.08 

7.29 

22.79 

1890 

25-50 

10.46 

15.04 

1900 

20.73 

5-86 

14-87 

1910 

21.02 

n-57 

9-45 

1920 

15.00 

4.50 

10.50 

This  table  shows  that,  generally  speaking,  as  the  rate  of 
foreign  immigration  has  increased  the  native  birth  rate  has 
fallen.  Hence  Professor  Walker  argues  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  foreign  immigration  has  actually  increased  the 


148  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

sum  total  of  our  population,  which  was  increasing  as 
rapidly  before  the  enormous  wave  of  immigration  as  after- 
wards.. Again,  although  the  South  has  received  little 
immigration  since  the  Civil  War,  her  population  has 
increased  proportionately  just  as  rapidly  as  has  the  popu- 
lation of  the  North,  which  has  been  recruited  by  foreign 
immigration. 

Distribution  of  Population. — About  one-half  of  the 
world's  population  lives  in  Asia  and  one-quarter  in  Europe. 

The  remaining  dry  land  of  the  globe  including 
icaidistri-  Africa,  Australia,  North  and  South  America 

contains  little  over  a  quarter  of  the  world's 
total  population.  In  Europe  the  industrial  nations  of 
Belgium  and  England  are  the  most  densely  populated. 
Before  the  World  War  Belgium  had  an  average  population 
of  six  hundred  and  thirty-six  per  square  mile.  Italy  and 
Germany  come  next  with  a  respective  density  of  one 
hundred  and  six  and  one  hundred  and  four  people  per 
square  kilometer.  The  least  densely  populated  of  all 
Europe  are  Russia  and  Scandinavia.  As  compared  with 
western  Europe,  the  United  States  is  sparsely  peopled. 
Germany,  for  example,  before  the  World  War  was  ten  times 
as  densely  populated  as  our  own  country.  The  average 
density  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole  is  thirty-one  per 
square  mile.  The  center  of  population,  however,  has  been 
moving  steadily  westward  from  the  older  states  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  When  the  first  census  was  taken  in 
1790  this  center  was  located  near  Baltimore,  but  it  has 
moved  steadily  westward  through  Maryland,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Indiana.  The  1920  census 
located  it  in  Owen  County  in  southwestern  Indiana. 
The  dry  climate  and  high  altitude  of  our  mountain  states 


Our  Increasing  Population  149 

of  the  West  make  a  dense  population  improbable  in  that 
region.  The  density  of  population  in  the  eastern  states  is 
much  greater  than  in  the  western,  for  the  East  is  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  section  where  numerous  large  cities 
flourish.  Indeed,  at  present,  a  trifle  over  half  our  entire 
population  lives  in  cities  of  twenty-five  hundred  or  more 
inhabitants.  About  five  per  cent  of  our  entire  population 
is  within  the  limits  of  greater  New  York  City. 

About  nine-tenths  of  our  population  is  white,  while  the 
remaining  one-tenth  is  negro,  most  of  whom  are  located 
south  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line.     There  are    other 
about  one-fourth  of  a  million  Indians,  and  about   methods: 
one  hundred  fifty  thousand  Mongolians,  chiefly 
located   in    California.      This  number   of   Mongolians  is 
divided  unevenly  between  the  Chinese  and  the  Japanese. 

About  eighty-five  per  cent  of  our  present  population  is 
native  born,  the  remaining  fifteen  per  cent  being  foreign. 
The  number  of  those  of  foreign  parentage  is          . 
still   higher   and   reaches   a  maximum  in   the 
New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  of  over  twenty- 
five  per  cent.     As  we  shall  see  later,  there  is  a  great  ten- 
dency of  our  foreign-born  population  to  become  congested 
in  the  cities. 

How  nature  provides  for  the  approximate  numerical 
equality  of  the  sexes  is  a  problem  of  biology,  but  that  such 
is  the  case  may  be  seen  by  examining  large  num-  ^ 
bers  of  birth  records.     As  men  are  more  likely  to 
migrate  than  women,  new  countries,  like  our  own,  affected  by 
immigration  will  show  a  slight  excess  of  males  over  females. 
Older  countries,  affected  by  emigration,  show  a  slight  excess 
of  females.     War  tends  to  reduce  the  proportion  of  males. 
In  the  United  States  there  is  an  excess  of  two  and  one- 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


Age. 


half  million  males  over  the  number  of  females.  In  Europe 
before  the  World  War  there  was  a  slight  excess  of  women, 
which  disproportion  has  since  been  increased. 

The  average  age  in  the  United  States  is  approximately 
twenty-six  years,  and  the  proportion  of  those  over  the 
legal  age  of  twenty-one  is  slightly  over  one- 
half.  The  proportion  of  males  of  military  age 
from  eighteen  to  forty-five  years  is  about  one-fifth  the 
population,  or  approximately  twenty  millions.  About 
the  same  proportion  makes  up  the  school  population  of 
the  country. 

Vital  Statistics. — Under  vital  statistics  are  included 
the  records  of  births  and  deaths  in  a  nation.  These  are 
reckoned  according  to  every  thousand  of  the 
population.  Thus  a  death  rate  of  nineteen  and 
seven-tenths  would  mean  that,  in  a  given  year  in  a  given 
community,  an  average  of  slightly  over  nineteen  people 
died  out  of  every  thousand  of  the  population.  Death 
records  are  fairly  accurate,  but  in  spite  of  legal  require- 
ments the  registration  of  births  in  our  country  is  far  from 
complete. 

We  have  seen  that  the  population  of  Europe,  before  the 
World  War,  was  increasing.  This  was  true  in  spite  of  a 
falling  birth  rate,  for  the  death  rate  had  also  fallen  so  that 
there  was  still  a  considerable  excess  of  births  over  deaths. 
Let  us  examine  the  birth  rates  of  three  typical  nations : 


Meaning. 


COUNTRIES 

1871-1880 

1881-1890 

1891-1900 

1900-1909 

Germany 

39-1 

36.8 

36.1 

34-o 

England  and  Wales 

35-5 

23-5 

30.0 

27.6 

France 

25-4 

23-9 

22.1 

20.8 

Our  Increasing  Population  151 

The  above  table  is  evidence  of  a  declining  birth  rate  in 
three  leading  countries  of  Europe.  This  fact  is  extremely 
significant,  for  it  seems  to  indicate  that  a  high  Afallin 
civilization  is  characterized  by  a  low  birth  rate,  birthrate: 
Again,  the  difference  in  the  birth  rates  of  InEurope' 
Germany  and  France  is  most  striking.  There  are  many 
reasons  for  this  difference,  but  perhaps  the  most  important 
is  the  economic.  Germany  in  the  last  generation  made 
wonderful  industrial  progress  and  became  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  large  population,  while  in  France  economic  and 
social  conditions  were  not  so  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
large  families.  For  example,  French  law  requires  an  equal 
division  of  the  father's  property  among  the  children. 
This  plan  has  encouraged  small  families  among  the  peasants 
so  that  the  holdings  of  each  son  may  not  be  too  small. 
This  low  birth  rate  has  been  a  problem  to  French  states- 
men, and  a  scheme  of  taxation  has  even  been  proposed  to 
meet  the  situation.  According  to  one  plan  suggested,  the 
highest  tax  would  fall  upon  bachelors,  whereas  a  father  of 
three  children  might  be  entirely  exempt  from  taxation. 

In  America,  a  similar  but  not  so  pressing  a  problem 
exists,  for  we  are  facing  a  decrease  in  the  birth  rate  of  our 
native  white  stock.  The  average  size  of  the  American 
family  has  decreased  from  five  and  six- tenths  in  1850 
to  four  and  three- tenths  in  1920.  Thus  in  the  last 
half  century  it  has  decreased  by  more  than  one 
person.  The  falling  birth  rate  is  most  noticeable  in  New 
England,  so  that  the  very  phenomenon  occurring  in  France 
is  equally  visible  in  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire. 
This  decrease  is  most  apparent  when  we  compare  our 
native  birth  rate  with  the  birth  rate  of  our  immigrants. 
In  1910,  in  Massachusetts,  the  native  birth  rate  was  four- 


152  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

teen  and  eight-tenths,  while  the  birth  rate  of  the  foreign 

born  was  forty-nine  and  five-tenths.     The  death  rates  of 

native  born  and  foreign  born  were  sixteen  and 

In  America.  .    ,  f  .    , 

three-tenths  and  fifteen  and  five-tenths  respec- 
tively. Hence  the  native  stock  in  Massachusetts  is  decreas- 
ing, as  the  birth  rate  is  actually  lower  than  the  death  rate. 
Amongthe  foreign  immigrants,  however,  the  surplusof  births 
over  deaths  is  enormous.  What  will  be  the  future  of 
Puritan  New  England  if  this  situation  continues  and  who 
will  inherit  the  land  of  the  Pilgrim  fathers?  In  the  South, 
however,  the  situation  is  not  so  serious,  for  there  the  native 
white  stock  is  holding  its  own. 

The  most  important  cause  of  the  declining  birth  rate 
among  our  native  white  stock  is  found  in  the  economic 
situation.  American  standards  of  living  have 
been  constantly  rising,  while  wages  have  not 
risen  proportionately.  This  relatively  lower  increase  in 
wages  has  been  attributed  to  the  lower  standards  of 
immigrant  laborers  who,  in  their  competition  with 
native  laborers,  force  down  wages.  As  a  consequence, 
the  American  seems  to  be  delaying  the  age  of  marriage, 
with  the  result  of  the  small  family.  A  moderate  income 
will  not  permit  him  to  rear  a  large  family,  if  he 
wishes  to  give  to  his  children  desired  advantages.  The 
increase  in  the  cost  of  living  has  exceeded  the  increase  in 
wages  and  far  outstripped  the  salary  of  the  so-called 
middle  classes.  As  a  result,  the  birth  rate  falls  rather  than 
the  standard  of  living.  Curiously  enough  the  size  of  the 
family  seems  to  vary  inversely  with  extremes  of  income. 
What  has  been  said  above  applies  mainly  to  the  great 
middle  class.  Comparing  the  so-called  upper  and  lower 
classes  of  American  society,  based  upon  income,  we  find 


Our  Increasing  Population 


153 


that  the  birth  rate  of  the  " laboring  class"  is  much  higher 
than  that  of  the  " social  set."  In  this  latter  case,  a  desire 
for  luxurious  ease  and  comfort  often  militates  against 
large  families.  In  addition  to  selfishness,  there  are  many 
other  causes,  beside  the  economic,  which  help  to  explain 
the  declining  birth  rate  of  native  white  Americans. 

From  the  following  table  we  may  observe  a  falling  death 
rate  in  three  leading  European  countries: 


COUNTRIES 

1875-1899 

1900 

1900-1909 

Germany 

24.4 

22.1 

19-5 

England  and  Wales 

iQ-3 

18.2 

15-8 

France 

22.0 

21.9 

IQ.S 

This  fact  of  a  falling  death  rate  is  also  true  of  our  own 
country.  Thus  the  death  rate  in  Massachusetts  fell,  in 
ten  years,  from  nineteen  and  three-tenths  to  A  falling 
seventeen  and  seven-tenths.  In  the  same  decade  death  rate: 
the  death  rate  in  the  state  of  New  York  fell 
from  nineteen  and  six-tenths  to  seventeen  and  nine-tenths. 
The  stage  of  civilization  attained  by  a  people  may  be  read 
in  the  death  rate  of  a  nation,  for  enlightened  countries 
attempt  to  prolong  human  life  and  to  lessen  preventable 
diseases.  Modern  medical  science  has  done  much  in  this 
direction.  In  the  last  century  the  death  rate  of  cities  has 
been  cut  in  half  by  a  knowledge  of  public  hygiene  and 
sanitation.  One  by  one  the  causes  and  carriers  of  disease 
are  being  discovered  and  conquered.  The  elimination  of 
typhoid  by  a  more  careful  disposal  of  sewage,  of  yellow 
fever  by  the  extermination  of  the  mosquito,  and  of  small- 
pox by  compulsory  vaccination  are  the  triumphs  of  medical 
science.  The  crusade  against  tuberculosis  is  still  being 


154  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

waged.  However,  infant  mortality,  although  decreasing, 
is  still  high.  Baby-saving  campaigns  have  resulted  in 
popular  education  upon  this  subject.  Clean  milk  and 
flyless  homes  will  accomplish  marvels.  At  the  present 
time,  however,  one-half  of  all  infants  born  die  before  the 
age  of  five  years.  As  recently  as  1900,  in  the  registered 
area  of  the  United  States,  sixteen  and  two-tenths  per  cent 
of  all  children  born  died  within  the  first  year. 

War  is  an  obivously  important  factor  affecting  the  death 
rate.  Again,  economic  depression  raises  the  price  of  food 
other  and  with  it  the  death  rate.  Industrial  accidents 

wfiuences.  j^  ^us^ds  annually  in  the  United  States 
alone,  and  occupational  diseases  take  a  terrible  toll. 
Climate  and  season  are  two  other  important  factors 
influencing  the  death  rate.  In  cold  climates  winter  is 
often  fatal,  while  in  warm  lands  summer  brings  the  dreaded 
fever.  It  would  seem  that  sex  and  conjugal  condition  are 
also  factors  in  longevity,  for  apparently  males  are  shorter- 
lived  than  females,  and  bachelors  do  not  live  as  long  as 
married  men. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  do  you  think  the  population  of  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages  was  stationary? 

2.  Show  the  great  increase  during  the  ipth  century. 

3.  Give  reasons  for  it. 

4.  State  the  theory  of  Malthus. 

5.  Criticize  it  and  show  the  falsity  of  his  fears. 

6.  Compare  the  countries  of  Europe  in  respect  to  their  rates  of 
increase. 

7.  Show  the  enormous  rate  of  increase  of  population  in  the  United 
States. 

8.  To  what  is  this  due? 

9.  What  continents  are  most  densely  populated? 


Our  Increasing  Population  155 

10.  What  countries  of  Europe  are  the  most  and  least  densely 
.populated? 

1 1 .  What  is  the  average  density  of  population  in  the  United  States? 

12.  How  does  it  vary  from  East  to  West? 

13.  How  does  it  compare  with  Europe? 

14.  Show  how  the  center  of  population  has  moved  westward. 

15.  Show  how  our  population  is  distributed  by  race;  by  nativity. 

16.  Distribute  population  according  to  sex;  according  to  age. 

17.  What  are  vital  statistics? 

1 8.  Compare  the  birth  rates  in  France  and  Germany. 

19.  Compare  the  birth  rates  in  America  of  the  native  and  foreign 
born. 

20.  What  will  be  the  result  if  this  difference  continues? 

2 1 .  Give  reason  for  our  falling  native  birth  rate. 

22.  Where  is  it  most,  and  where  least,  apparent? 

23.  Show  the  falling  death  rate  in  Europe.    In  America.    State 
the  reasons. 

24.  Describe  some  other  influences  that  affect  the  death  rate. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Effects  upon  population  of  scientific  farming. 

2.  Pressure  of  population  upon  food  supply  in  China  and  India. 

3.  Thomas  Mai  thus — his  writings  and  their  effects. 

4.  The  Law  of  Diminishing  Returns  from  land. 

5.  Relation  between  the  above  law  and  the  Malthusian  theory 
of  population. 

6.  The  causes  for  the  increase  in  Germany's  population  from 
1870-1910. 

7.  Medical  science  and  the  lowering  of  the  death  rate. 

8.  Infant  mortality — causes,  effects,  remedies. 

9.  Relation  between  occupation  and  density  of  population. 

REFERENCES 

BAILEY.     Modern  Social  Conditions.     Chapters  III  to  VI  inclusive. 
BONAR.     Malthus  and  His  Work. 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.    Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems.    Chapter 
IX. 


156  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

MANGOLD,  G.  B.    Problems  of  Child  Welfare.    Chapters  I— III 
MILL,  J.  S.    Principles  of  Political  Economy.    Book  i. 
NEWSHOLME,  T.     The  Declining  Birth  Rate. 
QUICK,  H.     The  Good  Ship  Earth. 
United  States  Census  Reports. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

AMERICANS — OLD  AND  NEW 

I.  Early  immigration  of  the  nineteenth  century 

1.  Waves  of  immigration: 

a.  Number 

b.  Causes 

2.  Nationalities  represented  : 

a.  Irish 

b.  Germans 

c.  Scandinavians 
II.  Later  sources 

1.  The  change 

2.  Italians 

3.  Slavs 

4.  Russian  Jews 

5.  Other  groups 

Early   Immigration  of  the  Nineteenth    Century.— 

The  increase  in  our  national  population,  as  already  indi- 
cated,  was  partially   the  result   of   successive 

,••.,•          .1  A  Waves  of 

waves  of  immigration  that  came  to  America 


from  Europe.     This  immigration  has  affected 

our  racial  and  social  heredity.     The  new  element 

has  influenced  and,  in  turn,  been  influenced  by  our  social 

environment.    These  newly  transplanted  Europeans  repre- 

157 


158  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

sent  various  strange  nationalities  of  the  Old  World  and 
present  a  serious  problem  of  adjustment  in  the  New  World. 
As  water  seeks  its  level,  so  population  moves  from  dense  to 
sparsely  settled  regions.  The  countries  principally  con- 
tributing to  our  early  immigration  were  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia.  Between  1820, 
the  first  year  for  which  we  have  statistics,  and  the 
present  time  over  thirty  million  immigrants  have  come 
to  America.  Half  of  this  number  has  arrived  since  1890, 
which  date  marks  the  beginning  of  immigration  on  a 
large  scale.  During  this  period,  the  sources  of  immi- 
gration have  steadily  shifted  from  northern  Europe  to 
the  Mediterranean  lands.  For  this  reason  we  speak  of 
the  early,  and  of  the  later,  immigration  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

In  1820  the  number  of  immigrants  was  eight  thousand. 

This  group  increased  slowly,  not  passing  the  one  hundred 

thousand  mark  until  the  'forties  were  reached. 

Causes. 

Two  significant  dates  are  1846  and  1848.  The 
former  marked  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland,  while 
the  latter  ushered  in  the  political  revolutions  of  Central 
Europe.  Both  events  sent  large  numbers  of  immigrants  to 
America,  but  the  increase  of  numbers  was  checked  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  In  the  'seventies  the  numbers 
rose  again,  growing  still  larger  in  the  'eighties.  The  propor- 
tion declined,  hdwever,  during  the  'nineties.  With  the  open- 
ing of  the  twentieth  century  and  up  until  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War,  immigration  to  the  United  States  assumed 
enormous  proportions,  passing  the  mark  of  one  million 
annually.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  the  fluctuations  in 
immigration  have  corresponded  to  economic  conditions  in 
the  United  States.  The  curve  of  migration  corresponds 


Americans — Old  and  New  159 

almost  exactly  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  national  prosperity 
in  this  country. 

Because  our  institutions  are  modeled  largely  upon  those 
of  Great  Britain,  American  history  has  its  beginnings  in 
England.  Her  contribution  to  the  early  colonists  . 

Nationali- 

was  numerically  the  greatest— English,  Scotch,  ties: 
and  Welsh  immigration  to  this  country  continu-  Thelnsh* 
ing  long  after  the  war  for  independence.  Ireland,  however, 
has  occupied  a  unique  position  in  American  history. 
From  1820  to  1850  the  Irish  made  up  two-fifths,  and, 
during  the  'fifties,  one-third  of  our  total  immigration.  The 
population  of  the  island  was  reduced  one-half  by  famine 
and  emigration.  There  are  probably  now  more  Irish  in 
America  than  in  Ireland  itself,  and  the  people  have 
decidedly  colored  our  national  character.  At  first  the 
Irish  immigrant  was  received  into  the  "pick  and  shovel 
caste,"  but  he  has  risen  rapidly  from  the  ranks  of  unskilled 
labor  to  positions  of  honor  and  trust  in  the  community. 
Many  Americans  prominent  in  public  life  are  of  Irish 
descent,  for  they  have  shown  rare  capacity  in  executive 
positions.  Many,  however,  have  not  advanced,  because 
the  Irish-American,  as  compared  with  the  German- 
American,  seems  to  fall  into  extremes  of  conduct. 

The  German-American  element  in  our  population  is  of 
equal  importance.     Over  five  millions  of  Germans  came  to 
this  country  during  the  last  century.     At  first,    The 
this  migration  was  due  to  religious  oppression,   ( 
but  later  it  was  the  result  of  political  oppression.    As  com- 
pared with  the  Irish,  this  group  of  immigrants  was  steady, 
thrifty,  and  provident.     Because  of  different  language  and 
customs,  the  German  element  in  this  country  has  been  more 
difficult  to  assimilate  than  the  Irish.     Germans  tend  to 


160  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

settle  in  communities,  like  those  in  Pennsylvania,  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  and  Wisconsin.  They  have  become  skilled 
artisans,  and  small  tradesmen  and  they  have  also  attached 
themselves  to  the  soil.  The  Irish  have  been  fond  of  com- 
petitive sports  and  athletic  games,  but  the  German- 
American  has  found  interest  in  gymnastic  societies,  festi- 
vals, and  choruses  requiring  cooperation  rather  than 
competition.  The  Irish  policeman  and  the  German  band 
were  typical  of  opposing  racial  characteristics. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  probably  over  a  million 
people  in  the  United  States  who  were  born  in  Norway, 
Sweden,  or  Denmark.  Norway  has  given  to  us 
Scandi-  a  greater  percentage  of  her  people  than  any 
other  country  except  Ireland.  The  home  of  the 
Scandinavian  immigrant  has  been  the  Northwest,  including 
the  states  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  North  and 
South  Dakota,  and  Iowa.  The  Irish  immigrants  were 
almost  entirely  Catholic,  but  the  Scandinavians  were 
Protestant.  This  group  has  recruited  the  rural  farming 
population  of  our  country  and  has  also  played  an  important 
part  in  the  lumbering  and  transportation  industries.  In 
point  of  literacy  this  group  leads.  Like  the  German  and 
the  Irish  migration,  the  Scandinavian  immigration  to  this 
country  has  about  ceased. 

Later  Sources. — In  the  last  two  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  remarkable  change  began  to  take  place  in 
The  the  character  of  American  immigration.  Pre- 

change.  viously,  the  source  of  supply  had  been  drawn 
from  northern  Europe  in  the  Teutonic  and  Celtic  countries 
of  Scandinavia,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland. 
Now  the  source  of  supply  began  to  shift  to  the  Southeast, 
including  the  countries  of  Italy,  Austria,  Hungary,  and 


Americans — Old  and  New  161 

Russia.  This  change  is  easily  perceived  by  a  study  of  the 
following  table,  which  gives*  the  percentage  of  immigration 
for  six  groups: 

1882  1907 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland     ....         22.8%  8.8% 

Germany 3I.7%  2.9% 

Scandinavia 13.3%  3-9% 

Total 67.8%  15.6% 


Italy  .  .  .  . 
Austria-Hungary 
Russia  . 


Total 10.1 

This  table  shows  that,  during  recent  times,  the  per- 
centages of  immigration  from  the  countries  of  northern 
and  souther  Europe  have  been  practically  reversed.  The 
change  in  the  character  of  our  immigration  is  likewise 
significant.  A  line  drawn  diagonally  across  Europe  from 
northeast  to  southwest  separates  two  distinct  civilizations. 
The  northern  area  (except  France,  from  which  we  receive 
few  immigrants,  and  Ireland)  is  Protestant  and,  generally 
speaking,  has  been  accustomed  to  some  degree  of  political 
freedom.  The  southern  area  is  Catholic  in  religion  and,  as 
yet,  not  altogether  accustomed  to  free  institutions.  Such 
a  geographical  line  would  also  separate  literacy  from 
illiteracy,  and  the  intelligent  artisan  and  farmer  from  a 
backward  peasantry  scarcely  removed  from  serfdom. 
Finally,  it  would  separate  the  Teutonic  races  from  the 
Latin  and  the  Slav.  The  European  type  north  of  this 
imaginary  line  is  similar  to  our  colonial  stock  and  is 
capable  of  adjusting  itself  to  American  institutions.  The 
races  to  the  Southeast,  however,  present  a  more  difficult 
problem  of  amalgamation.  Whereas  in  earlier  times  the 

L 


162 


Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 


immigrants  to  America  often  sought  a  refuge  from 
religious  and  -political  persecution,  the  cause  of  the 
more  recent  immigration  is  largely  economic. 


AMERICANS  OF  THE  FUTURE — WAITING  AT  ELLIS  ISLAND 

Before  the  World  War,  Italy  was  sending  to  our  shores 
between  one  quarter  and  one  half  a  million  immigrants 
The  annually.  The  reason  for  this  Italian  immigra- 

itaiians.  ^Qn  «s  enj-jreiy  economic,  for  in  the  native  land 
living  has  become  precarious.  The  rich  resources  of 
America  call  the  Italian  from  his  impoverished  and  over- 
populated  land.  The  Italian  immigration  has  settled 
largely  in  the  North  Atlantic  states,  showing  a  great 
tendency  to  congest  in  cities.  Often  an  entire  village  has 
been  transplanted  to  one  street  in  the  ghetto  of  a  great 
city.  Only  one-fifth  of  the  immigrants  are  women,  and 


Americans — Old  and  New  163 

the  absence  of  family  ties  encourages  a  migratory  life. 
Hence  many  shift  from  place  to  place,  borne  along  with 
the  tide  of  a  fluctuating  labor  market.  After  acquiring 
a  little  of  the  world's  wealth,  they  often  seek  to  return  to 
their  native  Italian  village.  A  distinction,  however,  should 
be  made  between  the  North  and  the  South  Italian  stocks, 
which  are  fundamentally  different.  This  racial  distinction 
may  be  read  in  different  physical  characteristics,  while 
traits  of  character  are  also  divergent.  The  better  class  of 
north  Italian  stock  often  seeks  Argentina  and  other  South 
American  lands,  where  it  becomes  an  important  factor  in 
industrial  enterprises.  The  occupations  of  the  Italian  in 
America  include  construction  work,  trading,  and  farming, 
as  well  as  many  forms  of  unskilled  labor. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  nearly  two  million  Slavs  in 
the  United  States,  half  of  whom  are  Poles.  So  great  is  the 
number  of  the  various  Slavic  groups  that  their  , 

The  Slavs. 

European  habitat  is  a  Babel  of  tongues  and  a 
mass  of  confusion.  In  numerical  proportion  we  find,  after 
the  Poles,  the  following  groups, — Bohemians,  Moravians, 
Slovaks  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  Slovenes  from 
the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  Croatians,  Dalmations,  Russians 
(exclusive  of  the  Hebrews),  Bulgarians,  Servians,  Monte- 
negrins, Slavonians,  Ruthenians,  Lithuanians,  and  Letts. 
Three-fourths  of  these  immigrants  are  males,  and  their 
illiteracy  is  extremely  high.  The  Slavs  belong  almost 
entirely  to  the  class  of  unskilled  labor  which  find  occupa- 
tion in  the  mines  and  in  the  great  manufacturing  industries 
where  brawn,  not  brain,  is  essential.  They  have  settled 
mainly  in  the  mining  and  industrial  region  which  has  its 
central  point  in  western  Pennsylvania.  An  exception  is 
found  in  the  case  of  Poles  and  Bohemians  who  settle  upon 


164  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

farms.  The  Slavs  are  remarkable  for  their  fecundity. 
Large  families  and  high  birth  rate  are  the  rule.  They  are 
slow  in  assimilation,  and  many  of  their  different  groups 
seek  to  found  in  the  New  World  a  nationalism  difficult 
of  attainment  in  the  old.  The  future  of  Slav  immigration 
is  of  vital  importance,  for  immigration  has  scarcely  touched 
the  millions  of  Slavs  in  Russia.  So  far  most  of  this 
immgiration  from  Russia  has  been  largely  Hebrew  in 
character. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  over  two  million  Hebrew 
immigrants  in  America,  so  that  one-fifth  of  all  the  Jews  in 
Russian  the  world  reside  in  the  United  States.  America 
Jews*  is  indeed  the  "Promised  Land."  As  compared 

with  other  groups,  the  Hebrew  seeks  to  bring  over  his 
entire  family  and  to  make  America  his  permanent  home. 
The  Jews  have  settled  almost  entirely  in  the  cities,  pre- 
ferring commerce  and  trading  to  manual  labor.  Garment 
and  cigar  making  are  more  attractive  to  them  than  ordinary 
unskilled  labor.  The  sweat  shop  industries  are  good 
examples  of  the  exploitation  of  the  Jewish  immigrant. 
There  are  comparatively  few  Jews  in  prison  or  in  the  alms- 
houses.  Intellectually,  they  rank  higher  than  other  immi- 
grants, as  may  be  readily  seen  by  the  records  of  school 
children  in  foreign  districts.  Out  of  the  six  million  Jews 
in  the  Russian  pale,  nearly  two  million  have  been  forced  to 
America  by  the  fire  of  persecution.  A  background  of 
centuries  of  race  prejudice  has  so  cemented  this  group  that 
religious  and  other  traditions  at  first  prevent  their 
quick  absorption  into  American  civilization.  However, 
they  later  assume  many  American  characteristics,  and 
the  rise  of  the  Hebrew  in  wealth  and  social  position  is 
marvelous. 


Americans — Old  and  New  165 

The  attempted  Russification  of  Finland  drove  many 
thousands  of  these  people  to  America.  Like  the1  Swedes, 
the  Finns  have  become  farmers  in  our  great  other 
Northwest.  The  Magyars,  or  Hungarians,  are  groups- 
partly  Mongul  in  blood  and  descended  from  the  Asiatic 
invaders  who  settled  in  the  plains  of  the  Danube  River. 
There  are  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  these  Hungarians  in 
our  land  and,  like  the  Slavs,  they  may  be  found  in  the 
mining  and  industrial  regions  of  America.  Many  return 
to  Europe  with  their  American  earnings,  leaving  behind, 
not  infrequently,  an  undesirable  record.  During  the  last 
twenty  years,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
Greeks  have  come  to  us  from  the  land  of  Homer.  Among 
this  people,  as  well  as  the  Italians,  the  padrone  system  of 
labor  flourishes.  Many  boys  live  under  a  master,  by  whom 
and  for  whose  benefit  their  labor  is  exploited.  From 
Asiatic  Turkey  come  not  only  the  Turks,  but  also  the 
Armenians  and  Syrians  who  peddle  anything  from  olive 
oil  to  costly  rugs.  These  people  are  subject  to  rigid  immi- 
gration inspection,  for  the  disease  of  trachoma  or  granulated 
eyelid  is  common  among  them. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What   European   countries   formerly   sent   us    the   greatest 
number  of  immigrants? 

2.  What  nations  now  lead  in  the  number  sent  us? 

3.  Show  this  change  from  statistics. 

4.  When  did  it  begin  to  take  place? 

5.  Compare  the  civilizations  of  Northern  and  Southern  Europe 
with  respect  to  the  type  of  immigrant  each  sends  us. 

6.  Compare  the  causes  of  the  earlier  and  later  immigration. 

7.  Give  the  causes  of  the  Italian  immigration. 

8.  Compare  the  North  Italian  and  the  South  Italian  type. 


1 66  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

9.  Give  the  characteristics  of  the  Slav  group  and  compare  it 
with  the  Italian. 

10.  Give  the  characteristics  of  the  Hebrew  immigrants  from  South 
Russia. 

11.  Name  and  describe  the  other  lesser  groups. 

12.  Where  geographically,  and  in  what  particular  industries,  does 
each  immigrant  group  tend  to  settle? 

13.  Try  to  trace  back  your  own  descent. 

14.  What  elements  came  into  our  population  about  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century?    Describe  each. 

15.  What  has  been  the  nature  of  immigration  to  this  country 
since  1880? 

1 6.  Give  some  general  characteristics  of  these  later  groups. 

17.  What  great  problem  has  this  change  in  immigration  given 
rise  to?     Explain. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  old  and  the  new  causes  of  immigration. 

2.  Immigration  and  the  Revolutions  of  1848. 

3.  Immigration  and  the  Irish  famine  of  1847. 

4.  The  European  background  of  immigration. 

5.  Russia's  treatment  of  the  Jews. 

6.  The  World  War  and  immigration. 

7.  A  program  of  Americanization. 

8.  The  steerage  passage  to  America. 

REFERENCES 

COMMONS,  J.  R.    Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 
FAIRCHILD,  H.  P.    Immigration. 
HALL,  P.  F.    Immigration. 

Reports  United  States  Immigration  Commission. 
Rns,  J.  A.     Making  of  an  American. 
Ross,  E.  A.     The  Old  World  in  the  New. 
STEINER,  E.  A.     On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant. 
STEINER,  E.  A.     The  Immigrant  Tide. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  PROBLEM  OF  IMMIGRATION 

I.  Distribution  of  immigrants 

1.  Geographical 

2.  Industrial 

II.  Effects  of  immigration 

1.  Economic  effect 

2.  Social  effect 

3.  Political  effect 

4.  Illiteracy 

5.  Poverty  and  crime 

6.  Other  social  effects 

III.  Asiatic  immigration 

1 .  Its  history 

2.  Its  problems 

IV.  Restrictions  on  immigration 

1 .  The  usual  restrictions 

2.  The  literacy  test 

3.  A  temporary  check 

Distribution  of  Immigrants. — We  have  just  observed 
the  tendency  of  immigrants  to  congest  into  groups  and 
have  noted  the  favored  spot  of  each  national 
group.     If,   however,    the   immigrants   to   this   ^aphicai. 
country    had    distributed    themselves    evenly 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  the  problem 
of  immigration  would  be  easy  of  solution.     But,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  those  who  have  come  to  this  country  from  Europe 
have  settled  largely  in  the  great  cities,  and  in  the  North 
Atlantic  and  Middle  states  of  the  East,  and  in  the  North 
Central  states  of  the  Middle  West.      Only  six  per  cent 

167 


1 68  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

have  settled  in  the  far  West  and  five  per  cent  in  the 
South.  Of  course  the  reason  for  this  geographical  con- 
centration is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  West  is 
agricultural,  while  the  South  is  not  only  agricultural  but 
is  also  well  supplied  with  negro  labor  against  whom 
competition  is  difficult. 

We  have  already  seen  the  characteristic  industries  of  the 

different  nationalities  of  our  immigrant  population.     As  a 

general  conclusion,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  four- 

Industnal.       ~  . 

fifths  of  our  recent  immigrants  belong  to  the 
group  known  as  unskilled  labor.  The  important  industries 
in  which  they  are  engaged  are  mining  and  manufacturing, 
construction  work,  transportation,  and  domestic  service. 
Agriculture  does  not  play  an  important  part  in  the  life  of 
the  immigrant. 

Effects  of  Immigration. — The  economic  effect  of 
immigration  is  well  illustrated  by  the  attitude  of  organized 
Economic  labor  upon  the  question  of  unrestricted  immi- 
gration. Organized  labor  asserts,  with  much 
truth,  that  immigrant  labor  has  lowered  wages  by  its 
willingness  to  submit  to  a  lower  standard  of  living  than 
that  accepted  by  the  American  workman.  Therefore,  just 
as  the  American  manufacturer  is  protected,  so  should 
American  labor  be  safe-guarded,  in  order  that  the  higher 
standards  of  living  of  American  workmen  may  not  be 
lowered  by  the  low  wage  of  immigrant  labor.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  an  economic  need  for  unskilled 
immigrant  labor  to  perform  the  work  spurned  by  American 
labor.  Hence,  there  seems  to  be  a  real  place  for  immigrant 
labor  in  the  United  States.  For  example,  great  construction 
enterprises  are  carried  on  by  gangs  of  immigrants,  who  toil 
in  our  mines  and  foundries  to  make  America  an  industrial 


The  Problem  of  Immigration  169 

leader.  Instead  of  going  upon  the  farm,  colonies  of 
foreigners  settle  around  great  industrial  centers.  As  a 
result,  the  exploitation  of  the  immigrant  has  been  great. 
He  is  thrown  into  the  maelstrom  of  industry  with  its  long 
hours  of  work,  dangerous  trades,  and  unhealthy  working 
conditions.  This  problem  we  shall  meet  again,  but  it  is 
most  acute  among  the  ignorant  immigrant  classes.  If  the 
American  worker  has  been  displaced  by  his  lower-waged 
rival,  he  has  more  often  been  lifted  into  the  higher  plane 
of  skilled  industries.  He  has  left,  rather  than  been  forced 
out  of,  the  ranks  of  unskilled  labor. 

The  recent  immigrants  from  southern  Europe  are  racially 
different  from  native  born  Americans  and  from  the  earlier 
representatives  of  northern  Europe,  who  were  social 
close  to  us  in  blood  and  civilization.  Conse-  effect* 
quently  the  newer  immigrants  are  more  difficult  to  assimi- 
late. Of  course,  America  is  the  " melting  pot"  of  nations, 
where  there  is  brewing  a  national  character  whose  exact 
nature  is  difficult  to  fortell.  Whether  the  new  mixture 
will  be  sociologically  inferior  or  superior  to  the  old,  it  is 
impossible  to  predict.  Only  its  future  development  in  the 
new  environment  can  answer  that  question.  The  public 
schools  are  doing  the  wonderful  work  of  Americanizing  the 
children  of  the  immigrants,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  process 
among  the  second  generation  is  remarkable.  Community 
centers  and  night  schools  are  solving  the  more  difficult 
problem  among  the  older  immigrants,  who  seek  to  learn  at 
least  the  rudiments  of  our  language.  The  homes  in 
the  congested  immigrant  section  are  frequently  un- 
healthy, and  the  position  of  woman  is  often  unfortunate. 
More  than  anything  else,  do  we  fear  the  lowering  of 
American  ideals  and  standards  of  living. 


170 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


A  CROWDED  STREET  IN  NEW  YORK'S  GHETTO 

The  political  effect  of  immigration  may  be  seen  especially 
in  the  conduct  of  municipal  government  in  the  United 
Political  States.  Massing  in  large  groups  in  our  great 
effect.  industrial  centers,  immigrants  here  come  to 

wield  political  power.  Often  the  "  declaration  of  intention ' ' 
to  become  citizens  of  the  United  States  has  been  sufficient 
qualification  for  voting  in  municipal  elections.  Conse- 


The  Problem  of  Immigration  171 

quently,  the  political  "boss"  has  rallied  around  him  the 
foreign  vote  of  our  large  cities  in  exchange  for  favors  and 
rewards  of  various  kinds  and  descriptions.  If  America  is 
to  have  clean  and  efficient  municipal  government,  our 
cities  must  be  purged  of  this  form  of  political  bribery. 
During  the  World  War,  it  was  feared  that  the  foreign  vote 
and  influence  might  play  an  insidious  part  in  national 
politics  and  in  international  policies.  However,  this  fear 
of  the  so-called  " hyphenated"  American  seems  to  be 
groundless. 

The  amount  of  illiteracy  in  the  United  States  is  due 
partly  to  the  negro  in  the  South  and  to  the  immigrant  in 
the  North.  The  World  War  revealed  the  pres- 

.„.  .  Illiteracy. 

ence  of  7,000,000  adult  illiterates  in  this  country. 
The  number  of  illiterates  among  the  foreign  born  was 
about  equal  to  that  among  the  native  born,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  foreign  born  comprised  only  a  small  minority 
of  our  total  population.  In  Massachusetts,  the  percentage 
of  illiteracy  for  the  native  population  was  five-tenths  per 
cent,  and  for  the  foreign  born  twelve  and  seven-tenths 
per  cent. 

A  special  prison  census  taken  some  years  ago  showed 
that  twenty-three  and  seven-tenths  per  cent  of  the  male 
white  prisoners  in  the  United  States  were  Poverty 
foreign  born,  while  for  the  same  year  twenty-  and< 
three  per  cent  of  the  total  male  white  population  over  the 
age  of  fifteen  years  were  foreign  born.  Hence,  our  immi- 
grants do  not  seem  to  show  an  undue  proportion  of  crime. 
The  South  Italian  group,  however,  has  an  unenviable 
police  record  and  shows  a  high  proportion  of  serious  crime. 
The  children  of  immigrants  also  show  a  remarkable  tendency 
toward  crime.  This  is  due  more  to  the  bad  social  environ- 


172  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

merit  of  the  city  slums  in  which  they  are  reared  than  to  a 
criminal  tendency  in  their  racial  heredity.  In  the  matter 
of  poverty  and  dependency,  the  immigrants  also  have  an 
undesirable  record.  The  number  of  foreign  born  in  our 
almshouses  is  greater  than  the  number  of  native  born 
whites,  although  this  group  constitutes  less  than  one-fifth 
of  the  total  white  population.  More  stringent  laws 
regarding  immigration  will  undoubtedly  cut  down  this 
excessive  proportion  of  dependency  among  the  foreign  born. 
Among  the  recent  immigrants,  there  are  about  three 
times  as  many  men  as  women.  This  has  affected  the 
proportion  of  sexes  in  the  United  States  and 
social  has  produced  a  slight  excess  of  males  in  our 

defects. 

total  population.  A  numerical  disproportion  of 
the  sexes  is  undesirable.  Again,  the  social  evil  of  vice 
and  immorality  has  been  accentuated  by  immigration. 
Inspectors  must  keep  a  vigilant  watch  to  prevent  the 
importation  and  exploitation  of  friendless  women.  Another 
social  effect  of  immigration  is  found  in  the  tendency  to 
keep  down,  relatively,  the  native  birth  rate.  In  America, 
the  birth  rate  of  the  foreign  immigrant  is  much  higher  than 
that  of  the  native  white  stock. 

Asiatic  Immigration. — European  immigration  has 
come  to  this  country  by  way  of  the  Atlantic  and  at  first 
its  settled  largely  in  our  eastern  section.  A  smaller 

history.  Asiatic  immigration  has  crossed  the  Pacific  and 
settled  along  our  western  coast,  principally  in  the  state  of 
California.  The  immigration  of  the  Chinese  began  with 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  1849.  They  later  crossed  in  such 
large  numbers  that  Congress  in  1882  passed  a  Chinese 
Exclusion  Act.  This  deliberately  and  completely  forbade 
the  entrance  of  Chinese  of  the  laboring  class  into  this 


The  Problem  of  Immigration  173 

country.  The  proportion  of  Chinese  has  therefore  declined, 
until  at  present  there  are  only  about  seventy-two  thousand 
in  the  United  States.  They  are  found  as  small  tradesmen, 
in  domestic  service,  and  in  the  fruit  and  truck  industries  of 
California.  Our  colonial  possessions  in  the  Pacific  Ocean 
have  a  large  proportion  of  Mongolians.  These  islands 
have  been  stepping-stones  to  America,  although  numerous 
stories  are  current  as  to  how  the  Chinese  have  smuggled 
themselves  across  the  northern  border  from  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  British  Columbia  has  a  similar  problem  in  the 
immigration  of  cheap  Hindu  laborers  known  as  coolies.  As 
yet  the  number  of  these  people  in  our  own  land  is  insignificant. 
The  Japanese  on  our  Pacific  coast,  however,  have  been  a  prob- 
lem of  increasing  importance.  Although  these  Asiatics  did 
not  begin  to  cross  over  to  America  until  after  the  Chinese, 
they  now  outnumber  the  latter.  They  have  settled,  likewise, 
in  the  cities  and  agricultural  valleys  of  the  Pacific  slope,  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  fruit  industry  of  California 
having  been  developed  by  them.  As  their  numbers 
increased,  the  industrial  competition  and  race  friction  grew 
more  acute,  and  to-day  a  slight  race  problem  exists  in 
California.  The  legislation  of  the  state  discriminates 
against  the  Japanese  in  matters  of  land  holding  and  public 
school  education.  This  situation  has  caused  the  national 
government  considerable  uneasiness  and  has  often  strained 
the  friendly  relations  between  the  two  great  nations. 
There  is  no  Japanese  exclusion  act,  but  a  "gentlemen's 
agreement"  between  the  two  governments  lessens  the 
amount  of  Japanese  immigration  to  this  country. 

The  problems  arising  from  the  Asiatic  immigration  are 
more  intense  than  those  resulting  from  European  im- 
migration. Illiteracy  is  high  among  Asiatics,  as  is  also 


174  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  disproportion  between  the  sexes,  for  the  Oriental 
immigration  is  almost  entirely  male.  Many  also  have 
its  not  sought  to  make  America  their  permanent 

problems.        home,   but  t()    retum    to  J^fe    ^h    fa  wealth 

secured  in  the  new  land.  The  industrial  problem  of  low 
wages  and  low  standards  of  living  is  intensified  with 
Asiatic  immigration,  while  the  political  objection  to  such 
immigration  also  holds.  More  important  than  either, 
however,  is  the  social  effect  of  Asiatic  immigration,  because 
the  Mongolian  presents  an  almost  impossible  problem  of 
assimilation.  The  Asiatics  are  so  homogeneous  that  race 
difference  presents  in  their  case  a  barrier  regarded  by  many 
as  insuperable.  If  this  Oriental  immigration  were  not 
excluded,  America  would  be  confronted  with  a  Mongolian 
race  problem  in  the  West  similar  to  the  negro  problem  in 
the  South.  We  have  seen  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
immigration  tends  to  move  from  a  dense  area  of  popula- 
tion to  a  rich  and  sparsely  settled  region.  Hence  the 
pressure  of  the  millions  of  over-populated  Asia  upon  the 
thinly  settled  lands  of  the  New  World.  To  overcome 
this  undesirable  mixture  of  such  totally  alien  groups,  a 
policy  of  exclusion  seems  to  offer  the  only  effective  remedy. 
Restrictions  Upon  Immigration.— Except  for  the 
exclusion  of  Asiatics,  little  restriction  until  recently  has 
The  usual  been  placed  by  our  national  government  upon 
ctions.  foreign  immigration.  Because  our  territory 
seemed  boundless  and  our  resources  limitless,  we  welcomed 
European  settlers  to  help  us  lay  the  foundations  of  our 
future  greatness.  But  now  our  national  boundaries  seem 
fixed,  and  free  land  in  the  United  States  is  being  gradually 
exhausted.  Again,  the  character  of  our  immigration  has 
changed,  and  the  south  European  stocks  bring  us  a  different 


The  Problem  of  Immigration  175 

racial  heredity.  The  older  immigrants  delight  to  call 
themselves  Americans  and  would  exclude  as  "  undesirable  " 
the  newer  arrivals.  In  this  there  is  an  element  of  truth. 
Many  European  nations  have  often  used  the  United  States 
as  a  " dumping  ground"  for  criminals,  paupers,  and 
defectives.  Agitation  for  restriction  upon  immigration 
goes  as  far  back  as  the  "Native  American"  and  "Know 
Nothing"  parties  of  the  ante  bellum  days.  In  1875  a  law 
was  passed  excluding  criminals  and  immoral  women  from 
our  shores.  In  1888  the  labor  unions  succeeded  in  having 
Congress  pass  a  law  prohibiting  the  importation  of  foreign 
contract  labor.  Numerous  immigration  laws  have  been 
passed  in  recent  years,  and  offices  of  inspection  have  been 
created  to  keep  out  the  following  classes  of  undesirables: 
(i)  contract  labor;  (2)  anarchists;  (3)  those  immigrating 
for  immoral  purposes;  (4)  criminals  (except  for  political 
offenses  not  recognized  by  the  United  States);  (5)  paupers 
and  those  likely  to  become  public  charges  because  of  lack  of 
visible  means  of  support;  (6)  mental  defectives,  such  as  the 
insane  and  feeble  minded;  and  (7)  those  having  infectious 
diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis  or  trachoma.  Steamship 
companies,  which  formerly  made  large  dividends  from  their 
steerage  cargo,  are  now  required  to  transport  back  to 
their  native  land  all  immigrants  who  fail  to  pass  our 
inspection  laws.  If  the  tests  were  made  in  European  ports, 
the  futile  journey  across  the  sea  would  be  avoided.  At  pres- 
ent, Ellis  Island,  near  New  York  City,  is  the  great  inspec- 
tion point  and  clearing  house  for  arriving  immigrants. 

These  restrictions  do  not  seem  stringent  enough  for  the 
leaders  of  organized  labor,  who  oppose  the  competition  of 
the  low- waged  immigrant.  Many  advocate  a  greater  head 
tax  or  possession  by  the  immigrant  upon  his  entry  into 


176  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

America  of  a  certain  specified  sum  of  money.  The  most 
popular  scheme,  however,  is  the  literacy  test  which  requires 
The  the  applicant  for  admission  to  our  shores  to 

literacy  be  able  to  read  or  write  in  some  language,  not 
necessarily  English.  Such  a  bill  passed  Con- 
gress at  different  sessions,  but  was  vetoed  successively  by 
Presidents  Cleveland,  Taft,  and  Wilson.  However,  this  bill 
was  finally  enacted  into  law  over  President  Wilson's  veto. 
Such  a  test  cuts  down  the  amount  of  immigration,  if  this 
is  the  only  end  desired.  It  is  easy  of  application  and  may 
be  applied  at  foreign  ports,  thus  saving  the  passage  to 
America  of  many  otherwise  disappointed  immigrants. 
Many,  however,  do  not  desire  this  restriction  on  immigra- 
tion because  they  feel  America  needs  a  supply  of  unskilled 
labor.  Again,  others  feel  that  the  infusion  of  new  blood, 
as  well  as  the  various  cultures  of  Europe,  will  make  the 
future  America  richer  and  better  after  the  difficult  period 
of  adjustment  and  assimilation  is  passed.  Granting,  for 
the  sake  of  argument,  that  it  is  necessary  to  restrict  the 
amount  of  immigration,  will  the  literacy  test  be  most 
productive  of  good  results?  The  easiest  way  is  not  always 
the  best.  Ability  to  read  or  write  does  not  necessarily 
mean  good  citizenship.  A  literacy  test  may  not  be  the 
best  means  of  selection,  because  it  is  neither  an  accurate 
valuation  of  the  biological  worth  of  a  particular  stock  nor 
a  measure  of  individual  character  and  native  ability. 

During  the  World  War  immigration  from  Europe 
practically  ceased.  With  its  conclusion  in  the  autumn  of 
A  tempo-  1918  the  problem  of  immigration  assumed  a 
ck*  new  aspect.  Vast  numbers  of  European  immi- 
grants sought  admission  to  America  as  an  escape  from  the 
ravages  of  war  and  from  the  burden  of  excessive  taxation. 


The  Problem  of  Immigration  177 

Within  a  year  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities  the  number 
of  Europeans  desiring  to  migrate  to  America  grew  to  alarm- 
ing proportions.  The  war  had  shown  us,  however,  the 
evils  of  undigested  elements  in  our  population,  and  the 
danger  of  admitting  immigrants  at  such  a  rapid  rate  that 
their  assimilation  and  Americanization  might  be  difficult. 
This  popular  fear  was  expressed  in  the  1920-21  session  of 
Congress.  A  law  was  passed  which  temporarily  restricted 
the  immigration  of  any  foreign  group  to  three  per  cent  of 
the  number  of  that  nationality  residing  in  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  1910  census. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  the  geographical  distribution  of  immigrants  in  the 
United  States. 

2.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  immigrants? 

3.  Explain  the  economic  problem  resulting  from  immigration. 

4.  Explain  the  social  problem. 

5.  Discuss  the  political  effects  of  immigration. 

6.  State  the  effect  of  immigration  upon  crime. 

7.  State  the  effect  of  immigration  upon  pauperism. 

8.  Give  the  history  of  Asiatic  immigration  to  America. 

9.  Where  and  in  what  industries  have  the  Orientals  settled? 

10.  Why  was  the  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  necessary? 

11.  What  is  the  situation  with  Japan  in  this  respect? 

12.  What  is  the  economic  basis  of  the  so-called  "  Yellow  Peril"? 

13.  What  groups  of  immigrants  were  first  excluded? 

14.  Make  out  a  case  for  and  against  the  literacy  test. 

15.  What  is  your  own  opinion  with  respect  to  temporary  restric- 
tions upon  immigration? 

16.  Discuss  the  good  that  may  result  from  the  intermingling  of 
races  in  America. 

17.  Explain  the  temporary  or  permanent  evils  that  may  result 
from  such  intermingling. 

M 


178  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Ellis  Island. 

2.  A  foreign  quarter  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

3.  A  study  of  localities  where  the  percentage  of  foreign  born,  or 
the  percentage  of  those  born  of  foreign  parentage,  is  comparatively 
high. 

4.  The  1921  law  for  proportional  restriction  of  immigration. 

5.  Organized  labor  and  the  unskilled  immigrant. 

6.  Resolved  "that  all  immigration  to  the  United  States  should 
be  prohibited." 

7.  The  effect  of  the  exclusion  of  immigrants  upon  wages  and  prices. 

8.  Immigration  and  Americanization. 

p.  The  consequences  of  the  Japanese  dogma  of  racial  equality. 

REFERENCES 

ANTIN,  M.     The  Promised  Land. 

BRANDENBURG,  B.    Imported  Americans. 

COOLIDGE,  M.  R.     Chinese  Immigration. 

HOURWICH,  I.  A.    Immigration  and  Labor. 

KAWAKAMI,  K.  K.    Asia  at  the  Door. 

KELSEY,  C.     The  Physical  Basis  of  Society.     Chapter  IX. 

MAYO-SMITH.    Statistics  and  Sociology.    Chapters  IV  to  VIII. 

STEINER,  E.  A.    From  Alien  to  Citizen. 

WARN,  F.  J.     The  Immigrant  Invasion. 

ZANGWILL,  I.    The  Melting  Pot. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  AMERICAN  RACE  PROBLEM 

I.  Background  of  the  Negro 

1.  Origin  of  race 

2.  The  African  environment 

3.  Slave  trade 

4.  Slave  life 

5.  Negro  characteristics 
II.  Number  of  Negroes 

1.  The  increase 

2.  The  distribution 

III.  Problems  of  the  Negro 

1.  Reconstruction 

2.  The  political  problem 

3.  Crime  and  pauperism 

4.  Industrial  problems: 

a.  Farm  life 

b.  Other  factors 

5.  Education  and  leadership 

6.  The  solution 

IV.  The  Indian 

1.  Early  treatment 

2.  Present  condition 

In  addition  to  the  foreign  immigrant  the  negro  is  another 
extraneous  element  in  our  population.  He  possesses  a 
still  different  racial  heredity  and  presents  a  difficult 
problem  of  readjustment  to  a  new  physical  and  social 
environment. 

179 


180  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Background  of  the  Negro. — The  biological  evolution 
of  mankind  was  probably  from  some  one,  rather  than 
Origin  of  from  several,  of  the  more  primitive  species, 
race.  From  this  common  stock  race  differentiation 

probably  took  place.  Whether  the  earliest  man  was 
white,  black,  or  of  a  still  different  type  cannot  be  positively 
asserted.  Primitive  man  migrated  in  several  directions 
from  his  original  home  in  some  central  portion  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  The  natural  selection  of  different 
geographical  environments  seems  slowly  to  have  developed 
the  different  branches  of  the  human  race.  An  imaginary 
line  drawn  from  England  to  Java  is  rich  in  fossil  remains 
of  primitive  man.  Such  a  line  also  separates  the  Mon- 
golian to  the  northeast  in  Asia  from  the  negro  to  the 
southwest  in  Africa.  The  Caucasian  race  lies  midway 
between  the  two  regions,  and  its  different  branches  occupy 
the  various  geographical  environments  outside  this  line. 
Hence  some  writers  believe  that  here  may  be  found  the 
origin  of  the  human  species.  One  branch  migrated  to  the 
northeast  into  Asia,  another  to  the  southwest  into  Africa, 
while  still  others,  remaining  in  their  original  home,  became 
the  progenitors  of  the  Caucasian  race.  The  dark  skin 
and  other  physical  characteristics  of  the  present  negro 
had  a  survival  value  in  the  tropics  of  Africa.  In  the 
Asiatic  environment  there  was  a  different  set  of  survival 
values,  and  natural  selection  worked  here  to  produce  the 
Mongolian  race.  Long  before  the  dawn  of  history,  the 
natural  selection  of  different  environments  thus  slowly 
developed  a  differentiation  into  races  of  the  primitive 
human  stock. 

The  tropical  environment  of  the  negro  helps  to  explain 
his  racial  heredity,  which  in  turn  enables  us  to  understand 


The  American  Race  Problem  181 

many  of  his  present  physical  and  mental  traits.  The  nature 
and  permanency  of  his  physical  characteristics  are  obvious. 
The  mental  traits,  however,  are  less  apparent 
but  equally  important.  The  natural  selection  African  en- 
of  a  tropical  environment,  operating  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  has  produced  in  the  negro  qualities  which 
cannot  be  overcome  by  a  few  centuries  of  civilization. 
A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this  point.  Severe  physical 
exertion  is  fatal  in  the  tropics,  so  that  the  very  energetic 
are  usually  eliminated.  Here  nature  furnishes  a  bounti- 
ful supply  of  food  and  natural  selection  places  no  premium 
upon  industry  and  foresight,  as  it  does  in  colder  climates  of 
the  North.  Since  the  death  rate  is  high,  the  birth  rate 
must  be  correspondingly  high  in  the  group  that  survives. 
Thus,  certain  writers  seek  to  explain  the  laziness,  shiftless- 
ness,  and  irresponsibility  of  the  negro  as  part  of  his  racial 
heredity,  which  developed  during  thousands  of  years  in 
the  African  tropics. 

The  Spanish  planters  in  the  West  Indies  developed 
negro  slavery  before  the  first  cargo  of  human  beings  was 
landed  on  the  shores  of  Virginia  in  1619.  Many  slave 
Englishmen  of  Elizabethan  days  sought  to  trade* 
monopolize  this  carrying  trade.  The  gallant  sea  rovers 
who  sailed  the  Spanish  Main  were  merchantmen  or  pirates, 
slavers  or  men  of  war,  as  the  occasion  demanded.  Hawkins 
made  a  fortune  out  of  the  slave  trade  and  proclaimed  this 
fact  upon  his  family  coat  of  arms.  That  enormous  numbers 
of  negroes  were  carried  to  America  is  attested  by  the  large 
percentage  of  negro  blood  in  the  mixed  races  of  Latin 
America.  The  population  of  Haiti  consists  largely  of  the 
descendants  of  slaves.  In  colonial  days  there  was  a 
famous  triangular  voyage  in  which  mariners  from  the 


1 8  2  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

North  sold  slaves  to  their  southern  cousins.  The  slaves 
were  brought  from  Africa  to  the  Spanish  and  English 
plantations,  where  molasses  was  taken  on  board  for  New 
England.  Here  it  was  made  into  rum  with  which  to  buy 
more  slaves  in  Africa.  This  was  not  difficult,  for  this 
institution  flourished  in  that  country  where  frequent 
tribal  wars  furnished  a  ready  supply  of  slave  labor.  In 
some  parts  of  Africa  it  was  difficult  to  get  three  men  to  go 
on  a  journey  together,  for  fear  that  two  might  conspire  to 
sell  the  other  into  slavery.  Later  the  Portuguese  and 
Arabs  monopolized  the  business  of  procuring  slaves  for 
sale  on  the  coast.  The  passage  to  America  was  known  as 
the  middle  voyage,  and  the  negroes  were  crowded  between 
decks  which  were  so  low  that  in  many  cases  it  was  impos- 
sible to  sit  upright.  So  close  together  were  they  packed, 
that  the  group  must  turn  over  in  mass  at  a  given  signal. 
The  mortality  was  enormous  because  the  sick,  the  crazed, 
and  the  blinded  were  often  thrown  overboard.  Slavers 
calculated  upon  delivering  but  a  part  of  their  human  cargo. 
This  traffic  was  a  dark  blot  upon  American  history,  made 
darker  by  the  fact  that  later  the  Mayflower  was  desecrated 
by  use  for  such  purposes.  The  national  government  for- 
bade the  importation  of  slaves  after  1808,  while  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  held  in  1815  at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  legislated  against  the  traffic  in  human  lives. 

There  are  two  sides  to  the  story  of  slavery.     In  America 

the  negro  became  Christianized  and  learned  of  a  higher 

civilization.     In  some  states,  however,  it  was 

Slave  life. 

illegal  to  teach  slaves  to  read  and  write.  Con- 
ditions of  life  under  slavery  were  probably  not  always  so 
bad  as  they  have  been  depicted.  The  material  comforts 
of  the  American  slave  compared  favorably  with  the  life  of 


The  American  Race  Problem  183 

European  peasants  of  the  same  day.  In  most  cases  they 
were  well  housed,  well  fed,  and  well  cared  for,  because  the 
self-interest  of  even  the  cruel  planter  dictated  such  a 
course  as  profitable  to  himself.  Slave- trading  was  most 
pernicious,  however,  because  it  broke  up  the  family. 
At  auction  sales  mother  and  children,  husband  and  wife 
were  often  separated.  Most  of  the  slaves  accepted  their 
fate  stoically,  for  their  moral  ideals  were  low  and  their 
conceptions  of  family  life  undeveloped.  Furthermore, 
slavery  was  not  calculated  to  develop  in  the  negro  a 
regard  for  the  property  rights  of  others.  It  was  difficult 
for  the  slave  to  understand  the  institution  of  property 
when  his  own  most  sacred  possession — life  itself — was 
taken  from  him.  As  the  master  planned  the  present  and 
future  of  the  slave,  it  was  unlikely  also  that  slavery  would 
develop  individual  initiative  and  self-control.  Slavery 
thus  hindered  the  development  of  independent  manhood, 
and,  merely  from  the  economic  standpoint,  its  evils 
necessitated  its  final  abolition. 

We  have  seen  the  effects  of  a  tropical  environment  upon 
the  racial  heredity  of  the  negro.     Some  of  these  slavery 
accentuated,    as,    for   example,    the   feeling  of   Nggro 
irresponsibility  and  an  undeveloped  moral  sense.    ?sh£cr*cter~ 
Under  these  circumstances,  may  we  expect  the 
family  ideals  of  the  negro  to  compare  favorably  with  our 
own?     Is  it  natural,  too,  that  slaves,  suddenly  freed  from 
compulsion,    should    readily    acquire    habits    of    steady 
industry?     Indolence  and  shiftlessness  are  partially  the 
results  of  the  new  liberty,  which  allows  these  elements  in 
their  racial  heredity  to  reassert  themselves.     The  ineffi- 
ciency of  negro  labor  is  due  partly  to  his  improvident 
recklessness,  and  partly  to  his  newly  acquired  freedom. 


184  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Prohibition  established  itself  in  the  South  to  make  negro 
labor  more  efficient  and  to  diminish  crime.  The  negro's 
ignorance  and  superstition  are  proverbial,  while  his  unclean- 
liness  exacts  a  terrible  toll.  He  is  deeply  religious,  but 
relics  of  African  folkways  are  to  be  found  in  his  fabric  of 
Christianity.  His  imagination  and  childish  love  of  story 
telling  often  lead  to  an  almost  unconscious  exaggeration 
and  untruthfulness.  The  negro  belongs  to  a  nature  people, 
unmoral  rather  than  immoral.  Not  only  is  he  affectionate, 
but  his  nature  is  singularly  free  from  vindictiveness. 
The  Civil  War  showed  the  loyalty  of  the  negro  to  the 
household  of  his  master  who  was  fighting  to  perpetuate 
the  very  institution  which  kept  him  in  bondage.  The 
negro  is  ever  cheerful  and  happy;  his  folk  songs  constitut- 
ing a  real  contribution  to  American  music. 

Number  of  Negroes. — The  census  of  1920  showed  over 
ten  millions  of  negroes  in  the  United  States.  Although 
The  their  number  has  doubled  since  the  Civil  War, 

the  percentage  of  negroes  in  our  total  population 
has  gradually  diminished  from  about  fifteen  per  cent  at 
that  time  to  about  ten  per  cent  at  present.  Although 
their  birth  rate  is  high,  their  death  rate  is  correspondingly 
high.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  cities,  where  the  negro 
death  rate  is  often  half  as  high  again  as  the  death  rate  of 
the  whites.  That  the  negro  is  not  adapted  to  the  environ- 
ment of  the  northern  states  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  his 
race  would  die  in  the  North  were  it  not  recruited  by  fresh 
migrations  from  the  South.  There  are  two  conclusions 
concerning  the  negro's  rate  of  increase.  In  the  first  place, 
his  numbers  are  not  increasing  so  rapidly  as  is  the  white 
race.  On  the  other  hand,  the  negro  is  absolutely  increas- 
ing in  number,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  the  race  will 


The  American  Race  Problem  185 

die  out  or  become  numerically  insignificant,  like  the 
Indian.  The  future  of  America  still  holds  the  solution  of 
the  negro  race  problem. 

Since  the  negro's  original  home  is  in  the  South,  the  race 
question  has  often  been  called  the  Southerner's  problem. 
Nearly  nine-tenths  of  all  our  negroes,  live  south  The  distri- 
of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  Line.  The  "Black  bution* 
Belt"  is  a  broad  agricultural  plain  extending  from  Virginia 
to  Texas.  Here  live  eight-tenths  of  all  the  negroes  whose 
rate  of  increase  in  this  section  is  very  high.  This  belt 
practically  coincides  with  the  eleven  states  which  seceded 
during  the  Civil  War.  In  the  two  states  of  Mississippi 
and  South  Carolina  there  are  actually  more  negroes  than 
whites.  Before  the  Civil  War,  the  negroes  lived  almost 
entirely  upon  the  plantations  and  picked  the  cotton  crop. 
Since  then  many  have  gone  to  the  northern  states,  but  we 
have  seen  how  natural  selection  has  operated  there  to 
keep  down  their  numbers.  Again,  there  has  also  been  a 
considerable  movement  into  the  cities.  A  similar  sad  fate 
has  awaited  them  here,  for  the  negro  does  not  seem 
adapted  to  city  life.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  in  certain  cities 
like  Jacksonville,  Charleston,  and  Savannah  about  one- 
half  of  the  population  is  often  composed  of  colored  people. 

Problems  of  the   Negro.— Slavery,    threatening    the 
existence  of  the  Union,  gave  rise  to  the  great  Civil  War 
which  resulted  in  its  abolition.     The  Emancipa-   ReCon- 
tion  Proclamation  issued  by  President  Lincoln   struction- 
was  a  war  measure,  the  legality  of  which  was  later  estab- 
lished  by   constitutional   action.     The    Civil   War    thus 
resulted  in  the  passage  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and 
fifteenth  amendments.     The  first  abolished  slavery,  the 
second    granted    the    negro    citizenship,    and    the    third 


1  86  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

enfranchised  him.  A  Freedmen's  Bureau,  created  to 
protect  the  black  man  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  new  rights, 
began  the  work  of  education.  Suddenly,  and  with  no 
preparation,  between  four  and  five  million  slaves  became 
American  citizens.  The  later  enfranchisement,  without 
training  or  preparation,  led  to  sad  results.  The  "  carpet 
bagger'*  directed  the  ignorant  colored  vote  for  his  own 
benefit,  and  an  era  of  negro  domination  followed  the  war. 
Colored  legislators  sat  in  the  proud  halls  of  southern 
capitals,  while  illiterate  ex-slaves  wasted  the  public  funds  in 
a  wave  of  corrupt  and  foolish  extravagance.  Federal  troops 
organized  military  districts  and  made  fearful  the  dark 
days  of  the  Reconstruction  period.  Under  President 
Hayes  the  troops  were  withdrawn,  and  the  South  recov- 
ered, but  did  not  forget  the  era  of  negro  rule.  As  the 
whites  obtained  gradual  control  the  negro  was  driven  from 
politics. 

The  new  constitutions  of  many  southern  states,  adopted 
since  the  war,  provided  for  the  practical  disfranchisement 
The  of  the  negro.  Mississippi  led  this  movement  in 


Probiem  ^9°^  when  the  new  constitution  provided  that 
every  voter  should  be  able  to  read  or  to  interpret 
a  clause  of  the  constitution.  The  negro  has  found  this 
task  difficult  before  a  Southern  election  board.  Other 
states  have  added  a  "  Grandfather's  Clause,"  which  exempts 
from  the  literacy  test  the  descendants  of  those  who  voted 
prior  to  1860.  The  negro  is  legally  kept  from  voting,  not 
because  of  race,  but  by  reason  of  illiteracy.  Therefore,  by 
the  political  problem  of  the  negro,  we  mean  that  arising 
from  the  franchise  and  from  the  principle  of  equality  before 
the  law.  In  the  South  the  negro  has  little  share  in  making 
the  laws  and  but  slight  participation  in  their  administra- 


The  American  Race  Problem  187 

tion.  Mob  spirit,  both  dangerous  and  contagious,  some- 
times prevails  and  presents  a  serious  problem  in  social 
control.  It  feeds  upon  ignorant  race  prejudice.  Enfran- 
chisement, however,  might  increase  rather  than  diminish 
race  friction.  Lynchings  also  occur  in  the  border  states 
of  the  North  where  the  negro  possesses  the  right  to  vote. 
A  greater  social  control  and  a  more  intelligent  citizenship 
are  necessary  to  prevent  such  disorders.  Another  effect  of 
negro  suffrage  is  seen  in  increased  political  corruption,  for 
the  negro  is  often  ignorant  and  illiterate.  In  some  northern 
cities  the  negro  vote  is  as  easily  controlled  as  the 
immigrant's. 

The  amount  of  crime  among  the  negroes  is  far  in  excess 
of  that  warranted  by  their  proportion  to  the  total  popula- 
tion.    This   tendency   seems   to   be   increasing   Crime 
rather   than  decreasing.     It  is  greater  in  the   and 

pauperism. 

border  states  of  the  North  than  in  the  South, 
where  tradition  has  fixed  the  negro's  place  in  society.  The 
maximum  of  crime  among  negroes  is  reached  in  the  city, 
where  the  congested  negro  quarter  furnishes  the  cause  of 
numerous  disturbances  for  the  local  police  authorities. 
Furious  religious  revivals  and  festivals  are  regarded  as 
dangerous  to  these  temperamental  people.  Strong  drink 
may  make  the  docile  and  good-natured  negro  quarrelsome 
and  criminal.  Vice,  as  well  as  crime,  exists  among  the 
negroes.  The  proportion  of  illegitimate  births  among  the 
colored  population  is  much  greater  than  that  among  the 
whites.  Indeed,  in  a  few  cases,  a  permanent  family 
life  hardly  exists.  Negro  pauperism  is  also  high,  for, 
unfortunately,  the  negro  group  contributes  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  its  members  to  the  almshouses  and  to  the  various 
charitable  institutions  of  our  great  cities.  Students  have 


1 88  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

estimated  that  from  a  half  to  three-fourths  of  the  negroes 
live  below  the  poverty  line. 

The  industrial  problem  of  the  negro  is  often  regarded  as 
fundamental  in  the  matter  of  race  adjustment.     Its  essence 

industrial  *s  tne  ma^ng  °f  the  negro  an  efficient  and 
problems:  dependable  factor  in  economic  production. 
Economic  independence  will  help  the  race  to 
solve  the  problems  of  crime  and  pauperism.  The  negro 
must  learn  habits  of  steady  work,  the  lessons  of  thrift  and 
industry,  and  accustom  himself  to  a  system  of  labor  by 
free  contract.  Much  has  been  accomplished  since  the 
break-up  of  the  old  system,  when  the  freed  slave  was 
turned  loose  upon  a  new  and  strange  economic  environ- 
ment without  either  land  or  capital.  However,  much 
remains  to  be  accomplished,  for  the  industrial  progress  of 
the  negro  has  been  slow  in  comparison  with  that  of  many 
immigrant  groups.  The  typical  negro  is  a  farmer  and  may 
be  found  in  the  cotton  fields  of  the  "  Black  Belt."  Only  in 
rare  cases  does  he  own  the  land,  for  a  survival  of  the  plan- 
tation system  flourishes  in  the  large  estates  of  the  white 
landlords.  These  are  broken  up  into  small  tracts  worked 
by  the  negroes.  Since  most  of  the  negroes  are  poor,  the 
landlord  supplies  not  only  the  tract  of  land  with  its  little 
cabin,  but  also  the  few  tools  and  other  instruments  of 
production.  There  is  often  a  plantation  supply  store  at 
which  the  negro  runs  a  charge  account  for  the  food  and 
other  supplies  which  he  purchases.  After  the  cotton  crop 
is  picked,  it  is  sent  to  the  neighboring  gin  and  a  settlement 
made.  When  the  rent,  the  account  at  the  plantation  store, 
and  other  charges  are  deducted,  the  balance  is  turned  over 
to  the  dusky  farmer.  This  is  small  enough,  for  prices  are 
high  and  the  interest  upon  credit  purchases  heavy.  A  con- 


The  American  Race  Problem  189 

tract  has  been  signed,  which  holds  the  negro  to  his  job  and 
fugitives  are  severely  treated  by  the  law.  The  planter, 
however,  often  finds  it  a  difficulty  to  secure  negroes  for 
steady  work. 

The  great  cry  of  the  developing  South  is  for  labor  and 
more  labor.  Hence  some  of  our  immigration,  like  the 
Italian,  is  slowly  going  south  and  competing  other 
with  the  negro  upon  the  farm  and  cotton  field.  ^actors- 
In  spite  of  race  friction,  the  Southerner  seems  to  prefer  the 
labor  of  the  negro  around  whom  his  native  traditions 
cluster.  The  negro  is  better  off  working  steadily  upon  the 
farm  than  floating  haphazardly  in  the  current  of  unskilled 
labor.  A  migratory  negro  of  the  ignorant  laboring  class 
often  gets  into  trouble  and  is  regarded  suspiciously  in  the 
South.  Negro  ownership  of  land  is  as  desirable  in  the 
South  as  native  peasant  ownership  in  Ireland,  where 
the  agrarian  problem  is  somewhat  similar.  Slowly  pro- 
gress is  being  made,  and  many  negroes  own  considerable 
property.  The  per  capita  wealth  of  the  colored  popu- 
lation has  increased,  but  among  the  masses  poverty  is 
still  the  rule. 

Industrial  education  is  the  crying  need  of  the  negro,  if 
he  is  to  be  trained  to  habits  of  steady  industry  and  to  rise 
above  the  group  of  unskilled  labor.     Great  trade 
schools,  like  Tuskegee  and  Hampton,  have  done 
much  to  create  intelligent  workers  and  good   ship, 
citizens.     Booker  T.  Washington,  the  late  prin- 
cipal of  Tuskegee,   who   emphasized   this   side  of  negro 
education,  was  regarded  generally  as  the  great  leader  of 
his  race.     A  different  view,  however,  is  held  by  Dr.  Wm. 
E.  B.  DuBois,  who  pleads  for  the  higher  and  more  cultural 
education  of  the  negro.     Undoubtedly  this  kind  of  educa- 


1 90  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tion  is  necessary  to  provide  colored  teachers  for  the  negro 
race.  The  negro  must  help  solve  his  own  problems  and 
this  is  impossible  without  intelligent  native  leadership. 
From  the  negro  universities  of  Atlanta,  Fiske,  and  Howard 
have  come  scores  of  intelligent  colored  men  and  women 
equipped  to  serve  as  professional  teachers  in  the  colored 
schools  of  the  South.  In  the  distribution  of  public  and 
private  funds  between  the  colored  and  the  white  schools, 
the  basis  of  determination  should  be  one  of  need  and 
necessity.  Many  other  men  of  letters  and  race  leaders 
may  be  cited  among  the  negroes.  Paul  Lawrence  Dunbar 
acquired  fame  as  a  poet,  while  one  of  the  pictures  of  Mr. 
H.  O.  Tanner  hangs  in  the  galleries  of  the  Luxembourg. 

The  present  negro  problem  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of 
early  economic  and  social  conditions.  Let  us  remember 
The  that  the  negro  is  here  not  at  his  own  request, 

but  as  a  result  of  the  action  of  our  ancestors. 
"But  what  shall  we  do  with  the  negro"?  is  the  oft-repeated 
question.  Liberia  was  founded  as  a  colony  in  Africa  for 
the  freed  slaves  of  America.  The  experiment,  however, 
can  not  be  called  successful  and  the  precedent  is  not 
likely  to  be  followed.  The  transportation  of  ten  millions 
of  negroes,  even  if  desired,  is  impracticable.  In  his  present 
stage  of  economic  development,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the 
negro  could  properly  support  himself.  He  might  even 
lapse  into  a  state  of  barbarism.  Some  sensational  writers 
have  feared  the  assimilation  of  the  freed  negroes  with  our 
own  Caucasian  stock.  This  is  alike  undesirable  and 
improbable.  There  is  no  one  patented  solution  for  any 
social  or  economic  problem,  nor  may  future  conditions  be 
prophesied.  The  present  policy  seems  to  be  that  of  a 
separate,  but  friendly,  coexistence  of  the  two  races.  An 


The  American  Race  Problem  191 

intelligent  leadership  and  sound  industrial  education  will 
develop  the  negro  into  a  useful  and  law-abiding  citizen. 
When  he  becomes  an  efficient  producer,  his  own  poverty 
and  crime  will  diminish.  Then  the  South  will  be  morfc 
likely  to  grant  him  genuine  political  rights.  In  the  mean- 
time, an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  negro  problem 
will  tend  to  remove  many  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  its 
solution. 

The  Indian. — In  addition  to  the  negro  and  the  Mon- 
golian, America  has  the  Indian.  His  problem  is  interesting 
historically.  In  comparison  with  the  number  of  Early 
negroes  in  this  country,  the  present  quarter  of  a  treatment- 
million  of  Indians  is  insignificant.  Like  the  negro,  however, 
the  Indian  has  been  the  victim  of  conditions  over  which  he 
had  no  control.  The  European  settlers  drove  him  from  his 
hunting  grounds  and  appropriated  for  themselves  his  original 
home.  In  the  wars  of  conquest,  many  regarded  the  dead 
Indian  as  the  only  good  Indian.  To  be  sure,  William  Penn 
and  Roger  Williams  stand  out  as  pleasing  contrasts  to  this 
opinion.  Before  the  advancing  Caucasian  tide  the  Indian, 
like  the  buffalo,  has  disappeared  below  the  horizon.  There 
are  probably  as  many  Indians  to-day  as  when  Columbus 
discovered  America.  The  Indian  population  has  decreased 
relatively,  however,  because  his  birth  rate  is  much  lower 
than  that  of  the  whites.  Contact  with  European  civiliza- 
tion seemed  fatal  to  these  nature  people.  They  learned 
its  vices  rather  than  its  virtues.  Alcohol,  it  is  said,  has 
killed  more  Indians  than  the  white  man's  bullets.  An 
indoor  life,  with  its  resulting  tuberculosis,  seems  also 
signally  fatal  to  the  Indian. 

The  United  States  Government  has  set  aside  reservations 
for  the  Red  Man  and  appropriates  funds  for  supplies  and 


192  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

maintenance.  While  this  may  be  a  just  policy,  the  lack 
of  necessity  on  the  part  of  the  Indian  for  self-support  is 
Present  bound  to  encourage  laziness  and  undermine  inde- 
)ns*  pendent  manhood.  Again,  our  dealings  in  the 
past  with  these  people  have  not  always  been  free  from 
corruption  and  injustice.  It  is  hoped  that  a  better  day  is 
dawning.  Government  schools,  like  Carlisle,  seek  to  teach 
the  Indian  habits  of  industry  and  to  give  him  vocational 
training.  As  a  result,  many  Indians  have  adopted  our 
civilization  and  are  being  assimilated  into  the  American 
population. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Discuss  the  origin  of  race  and  show  the  working  of  natural 
selection  in  race  development. 

2.  Show  the  effect  of  the  tropical  environment  of  Africa  upon 
the  racial  heredity  of  the  negro. 

3.  Sketch  the  history  and  horrors  of  the  slave  trade. 

4.  Give  the  good  and  the  bad  effects  of  slavery. 

5.  Give  some  characteristics  of  the  negro. 

6.  Explain  some  of  these  in  terms  of  his  physical  and  social 
environment. 

7.  How  does  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  negro  compare  with  that 
of  the  whites?    What  of  the  future? 

8.  Where  is  the  negro  not  relatively  increasing  in  numbers? 

9.  Give  figures  to  show  that  the  negro  is  the  race  problem  of  the 
South. 

10.  What  states  have  a  greater  colored  population  than  white? 

11.  Where  and  what  is  the  "Black  Belt"? 

12.  Sketch  the  political  status  of  the  negro. 

13.  How  is  the  fifteenth  amendment  circumvented? 

14.  What  is  your  opinion  as  to  the  political  equality  of  the  negro? 

15.  Is  the  negro  protected  in  his  rights  of  citizenship? 

1 6.  Discuss  crime  and  pauperism  among  the  negroes. 

17.  What  is  the  extent  of  poverty  in  this  group? 

1 8.  What  is  the  essence  of  the  negro  industrial  problem? 


The  American  Race  Problem  193 

19.  Discuss  the  system  under  which  the  Black  Belt  is  farmed. 

20.  Compare  the  two  types  of  negro  education. 

21.  Name  some  leaders  of  the  race. 

22.  What  is  your  idea  regarding  the  outlook  of  the  negro  problem? 

23.  How  has  the  Indian  been  treated  by  the  early  settlers?  By  our 
national  government? 

24.  How  has  contact  with  civilization  affected  the  Indians? 

25.  Is  the  Indian  dying  out? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Slave  life  in  the  early  South. 

2.  The  life  of  Booker  T.  Washington. 

3.  Tuskegee  Institute. 

4.  Colored  institutions  for  scholastic  training. 

5.  The  negro  and  city  life. 

6.  The  Black  Belt. 

7.  The  Freedmen's  Bureau. 

8.  The  mulatto — his  good  and  bad  side. 

9.  The  negro  and  the  franchise. 

10.  The  Ku  Klux  Clan. 

11.  The  present  condition  of  the  negro. 

REFERENCES 

BAKER,  R.  S.    Following  the  Color  Line. 
Du  Bois,  W.  E.  B.    Souls  of  Black  Folk. 
MCKENZIE,  F.  A.     The  Indian. 
MERRIAM,  G.  S.     The  Negro  and  the  Nation. 
MILLER,  K.     Race  Adjustment. 
NEGRO  EDUCATION.    BuUetin  1916,  Nos.  38  and  39,  Bureau  of 

Education. 

STONE,  A.  H.    Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem* 
TILLINGHAST,  J.  A.     Negro  in  Africa  and  America. 
United  States,  Census  Reports. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.    Future  of  the  American  Negro. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.     The  Negro  Problem. 
WASHINGTON,  B .  T.    Story  of  the  Negro. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.     Up  From  Slavery. 
WASHINGTON,  B.  T.    Working  with  the  Hands. 

N 


CHAPTER  XVI 
POSSIBILITIES  OF  OUR  ECONOMIC  ENVIRONMENT 

I.  The  physiography  of  the  United  States 

1.  The  Atlantic  Slope 

2.  The  Mississippi  Valley 

3.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau 

4.  The  Pacific  Coast 

5.  Our  new  possessions 

6.  America's  possibilities 
II.  Agricultural  resources 

1.  Their  development 

2.  Chief  crops 

3.  Timber  resources 

III.  Mineral  wealth 

1.  Its  development 

2.  Iron  and  copper 

3.  The  precious  metals 

4.  Fuels: 

a.  Coal 

b.  Petroleum 

IV.  Water  resources 

1.  The  Mississippi  System 

2.  Other  waterways 

3.  Water  power: 

a.  Its  importance 

b.  Examples 

c.  Conclusion 

Heredity  and  environment  are  the  two  pillars  upon  which 
the  social  structure  is  built.  We  have  sketched  the  physi- 
cal and  social  heredity  of  the  American  nation,  and 

194 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         195 

attempted  an  analysis  of  the  elements  in  our  complex 
population.  Natural  environment,  however,  becomes  the 
important  factor,  as  we  pass  from  a  survey  of  the  political 
and  the  social  to  the  economic  evolution  of  America.  It 
is  therefore  necessary  to  consider  the  natural  resources  of 
the  United  States. 

The  Physiography  of  the  United  States.— Continen- 
tal United  States  contains  about  three  million  square  miles 
and  nearly  equals  in  area  the  continent  of  Europe.  Geo- 
graphically, it  falls  into  four  great  divisions:  the  Atlantic 
Seaboard,  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Plateau,  and  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  area  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  was  the  first  to  be  settled.     Westward 
the  course  of  industry,  as  well  as  of  empire,  took   The 
its  way.     The  Atlantic  Slope  continues  to  be  the   Atlantic 
most  densely  populated  section,  for  it  is  still  the 
commercial  and  industrial  center  of  the  nation.     This  sec- 
tion is  favored  by  excellent  natural  harbors  and  abundant 
navigable  rivers.     There  are  numerous  good  sites  for  water 
power.     The  land  is   fertile   and   the   rainfall   sufficient. 
Behind  it  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  rich  in  coal  and  iron 
ores,  furnish  the  basis  for  industrial  development. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  is  the  great  agricultural  section 
of  the  country.  Here  the  soil  is  exceptionally  fertile  and 
the  rainfall  abundant.  The  great  plains  can  be  Mississippi 
divided  into  agricultural  belts  by  the  parallels  VaUey- 
of  latitude.  The  wheat  belt  is  in  the  North,  the  cotton 
belt  in  the  South,  and  the  corn  belt  occupies  the  central 
region.  The  Mississippi  river  system  and  the  Great  Lakes 
afford  a  cheap  means  of  water  transportation  for  the  bulky 
agricultural  products. 


196  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau   is  characterized  by  in- 
sufficient rainfall.     This  arid  triangular  region  is  nearly 
a  thousand  miles  wide  in  the  North,  but  in  the 

The  Rocky 

Mountain  South  it  narrows  down  to  a  width  of  but  five 
hundred  miles.  This  great  plateau,  crossed  by 
lofty  mountains  and  deep  ravines,  extends  from  the  foot 
hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  form  the  western 
border  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  range 
in  California.  It  comprises  a  third  of  the  entire  area  of  our 
nation.  A  large  portion  has  a  naturally  fertile  soil, 
although  the  rainfall  is  lacking.  Here  we  find  some  of  the 
greatest  irrigation  projects  in  America.  At  present  the 
grazing  industry  predominates,  and  this  section  produces 
vast  supplies  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  varies  greatly  in  the 
North  and  South.  The  southern  section  has  a  semi- 
The  Pacific  tropical  climate  and  is  well  suited  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fruits.  The  localization  of  the  motion 
picture  industry  in  this  region  is  proof  of  its  pleasant, 
sunny  climate.  In  the  North,  the  temperature  is  cooler 
and  the  rainfall  more  plentiful.  The  Northwest  is  rich 
in  timber  resources.  Here  are  located  the  best  port  facil- 
ities of  the  West,  but  the  Pacific  Coast  does  not  have  such 
good  natural  harbors  as  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

The  territorial  possessions  of  the  United  States  are  geo- 
graphical extremes.  Alaska  is  sought  for  its  furs  and 
Our  new  fisheries,  but  it  is  also  rich  in  mineral  resources, 
possessions.  The  island  dependencies  of  the  United  States 
possess  great  strategic  as  well  as  commercial  value.  The 
principal-  article  of  export  from  Hawaii  is  sugar.  Porto 
Rico  also  produces  tobacco  and  coffee.  The  chief  products 
of  the  Philippines  are  hemp,  sugar,  copra,  and  tobacco. 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         197 

Nature  has  been  very  bountiful  in  her  gifts  to  the  United 
States.  Not  only  is  the  land  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  but 
the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  great  variation  in 

/  America's 

temperature  from  the  North  to  the  South  is    possibm- 
increased  by  the  differences  in  altitude.     This 
variety  in  climate  produces  a  similar  variety  of  products. 
Although  located  entirely  within  the  temperate  zone,  the 
United  States  is  almost  economically  self-sufficient.    Good 
natural  harbors  and  numerous  great  rivers  leading  in  to 
the  heart  of  the  continent  facilitate  the  problem  of  trans- 
portation.    This  vast,  virgin  territory  opened  up  to  the 
early  settlers  economic  opportunities  that  kept  pace  with 
the  political  development  of  the  nation. 

Agricultural  Resources. — America  contributed  to  the 
world  several  new  agricultural  products,  including  tobacco, 
the  potato,  and  Indian  corn  or  maize.  Tobacco 
and  indigo  played  an  interesting  part  in  the 
development  of  the  southern  colonies.  After  the 
invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  cotton  became  the  great 
southern  crop,  which  influenced  our  national  history  before 
the  Civil  War.  Further  North  the  English  settlers  strove 
to  raise  wheat,  but  were  more  successful  with  the  native 
Indian  corn.  A  corresponding  change  took  place  in  their 
diet.  The  one  crop  system,  which  was  followed,  tended 
to  exhaust  the  soil.  This  fact  drove  many  into  the  rich 
free  lands  of  the  West.  At  that  time  labor,  not  land,  was 
the  scarce  factor  in  production,  as  is  generally  true  in  new 
countries.  A  stimulus  was  therefore  given  to  the  invention 
of  agricultural  machinery,  and  Yankee  ingenuity  became 
justly  famous.  Productivity  per  acre  may  be  low  in 
America,  but  productivity  per  man  is  relatively  high. 
The  growth  of  cities  has  developed  dairying  and  trucking, 


198  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

which  are  largely  localized  around  the  great  population 
centers  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States. 

Agriculture  is  still  our  chief  industry.  Corn,  wheat,  and 
cotton  are  the  three  staples.  Corn  takes  first  place,  for 
Chief  its  annual  value  is  equal  to  that  of  the  other 

two  crops  combined.  It  is  largely  used  for 
fattening  swine  and  is  shipped  to  Europe  indirectly  in  the 
form  of  pork.  The  corn  belt  comprises  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Illinois,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Hay  is 
generally  the  second  crop  in  value,  but  like  potatoes  and 
oats,  its  production  is  not  localized  in  any  one  section. 
Wheat  flourishes  in  the  Northwest,  particularly  in  the 
Dakotas  and  Minnesota.  Kansas,  Washington,  Illinois, 
Nebraska,  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Indiana  complete  the  wheat 
belt.  Both  wheat  and  cotton  are  important  articles  of 
export.  The  cotton  belt  comprises  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and  Texas. 
Here  the  price  of  cotton  is  the  barometer  of  prosperity. 

The  Atlantic  Slope  was  originally  well  wooded  and 
stocked  with  game  of  all  kinds.  The  early  settlers  waged 
Timber  war  not  only  against  the  Indians,  but  also  with 
resources.  the  wild  beasts  an(j  ^th  the  forests.  A  clearing 

was  made  by  chopping  down  the  trees  and  then  burning 
off  the  stumps  so  that  crops  might  be  planted.  At  present 
there  are  five  great  timber  sections  in  the  United  States: 
the  Northeast,  the  South,  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  the  Pacific  Coast.  In  Maine  and  the 
contiguous  district  ''still  stands  the  forest  primeval,  the 
murmuring  pine  and  the  hemlock."  Among  the  important 
trees  which  flourish  here,  the  white  pine  is  most  valuable, 
but  is  becoming  scarce  and  expensive.  The  wood  pulp 
industry  has  denuded  great  sections  of  spruce  forests. 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         199 

The  timber  lands  around  the  Great  Lakes  contain  some 
harder  woods,  but  are  mainly  coniferous  in  character. 
The  chief  trees  of  the  great  forests  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  the  western  yellow  pine,  the  spruce,  and  the  red  fir. 
The  southern  states  are  important  chiefly  because  of  the 
southern  or  yellow  pine.  The  swamp  forests  along  the 


A  WASHINGTON  FOREST  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR 

coast  have  cypress  and  hard  woods.  The  Pacific  Coast 
section  is  the  most  heavily  timbered  of  all.  The  important 
varieties  are  the  fir,  hemlock,  pine,  cedar,  spruce,  and 

redwood. 

Mineral  Wealth.— As  early  as  colonial  days  the 
industry  began  in  America.     Charcoal  smelting,  then  the 
method  used,  was  made  possible  because  of  an  abundance  of 


200  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

cheap  timber.  The  process,  however,  could  be  more  effec- 
tively carried  on  by  the  utilization  of  coal  deposits.  Before 
its  develop-  the  Civil  War  great  new  supplies  of  iron  ore 
were  discovered  around  Lake  Superior.  The 
introduction  of  the  Bessemer  process  and  the  blast  furnace 
made  the  United  States  an  international  factor  in  the 
production  of  steel.  Industrial  adjustment  is  illustrated 
by  the  movement  of  the  steel  industry  from  eastern  to 
western  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  located  between  the 
coal  beds  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  new  sources  of  iron  ore 
on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Before  the  close  of  the  last  century  the  United  States 
had  surpassed  Great  Britain  as  a  producer  of  pig  iron  as 
well  as  of  iron  ore.  The  chief  sources  of  iron  ore  are  the 
•deposits  around  Lake  Superior  in  the  states  of  Michigan, 
iron  and  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Other  new  sources 
copper.  jiave  keen  found  in  Alabama,  Virginia,  and 
New  York.  Copper  is  the  mineral  next  in  importance  to 
iron,  and  is  similarly  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior. Copper  is  not  only  produced  in  Michigan,  but  also 
in  Montana,  Arizona,  and  Colorado.  The  United  States 
produces  as  much  copper  as  all  the  rest  of  the  world 
combined. 

The  lure  of  the  precious  metals  was  an  important  factor 
in  the  exploration  and  colonization  of  both  North  and 
The  South  America.  Th^  production  of  gold  in  the 

precious  United  States  was  insignificant  until  its  dis- 

metals. 

co very  in  California  in  1849.  Its  production 
later  fell  off  until  new  sources  were  discovered  in  Colorado. 
The  production  of  silver  was  not  significant  until  after  the 
Civil  War.  In  the  'eighties  and  'nineties  it  was  so  important 
that  a  political  issue  was  made  for  the  increased  coinage  of 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         201 

silver.     Important  silver  mines  are  located  in  Nevada, 
Montana,  Utah,  and  Colorado. 

Although  the  precious  metals  are  found  in  the  West, 
the  important  coal  deposits  are  located  in  the  East. 
Almost  our  entire  supply  of  anthracite  comes  Fuels: 
from  Pennsylvania.  Although  the  same  state  Coal- 
leads  in  the  production  of  bituminous  coal,  other  great 
bituminous  areas  are  found  in  West  Virginia,  Illinois,  and 
Ohio.  The  United  States  is  the  leading  coal-producing 
nation  of  the  world.  Natural  gas  is  another  important 
fuel  in  the  section  around  western  Pennsylvania.  Although 
the  supply  is  precarious,  a  temporary  abundance  of  this 
fuel  has  caused  it  to  be  wasted.  Its  industrial  use  is  only 
local. 

Petroleum  was  first  discovered  in  western  Pennsylvania. 
At  first  the  supply  seemed  localized  in  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  and  West  Virginia.  Later  oil  was  dis- 

Petroleum. 

covered  in  Texas,  and  recent  successful  borings 
have  been  made  in  Oklahoma.  The  number  of  products 
derived  from  crude  petroleum  makes  it  of  great  commercial 
value,  and  a  world  wide  search  has  been  undertaken  for 
new  sources.  There  are  important  oil-producing  areas 
abroad  in  Russia  and  western  Asia,  where  this  economic 
factor  has  become  an  important  element  in  international 
politics. 

Water  Resources. — The  United  States   possesses    an 
excellent  system  of  inland  waterways.     On  the  North,  lie 
the  Great  Lakes  which  provide  eighteen  hundred   Thg 
miles    of    navigable    water.     The    Mississippi 
River,  running  through  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent  and   touching   twenty-two   states,   is   navigable   for 
more  than  a  thousand  miles.     Although  the  area  served 


202 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


OIL  WELLS  IN  TEXAS 

by  this  river  and  its  tributaries  furnishes  the  bulk  of  our 
agricultural  exports  and  a  large  proportion  of  our  manu- 
factured products,  the  river  is  but  little  used  for  transpor- 
tation. The  Mississippi  River  serves  as  an  excellent 
illustration  of  the  possibilities  and  problems  of  internal 
waterways.  To  realize  its  full  possibilities  a  number  of 
improvements  must  be  made.  One  of  the  worst  features 
of  this  stream  is  its  meandering  tendency.  Mark  Twain 
has  humorously  described  these  windings  of  the  lower 
Mississippi  from  his  old  "  side- wheeler."  This  drawback 
has  another  unfortunate  effect  besides  increasing  the  dis- 
tance in  traveling.  A  slight  curve  tends  to  become 
intensified  by  the  force  of  the  current  which  cuts  away  the 
outside  bank.  The  channel  is  therefore  constantly  under- 
cutting the  bank  upon  which  the  docks  are  located.  This 
can  only  be  prevented  by  straightening  the  stream. 
Another  problem  is  that  of  seasonal  floods,  which  are  in 
part  caused  by  the  deforestation  of  the  territory  around 
the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi.  The  levees  along  the 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment 


203 


OIL  WELLS  IN  TEXAS 

southern  banks  would  be  made  less  necessary  by  the 
building  of  storage  dams  along  the  northern  part  of  the 
stream.  . 

The  Mississippi  River  is  partly  paralleled  by  a  series  of 
inland  waterways  in  the  East.  At  present  this  system  is 
useful  for  small  craft  only,  but  it  may  develop  other 
future  possibilities.  The  heads  of  the  Delaware  waterw*ys- 
and  Chesapeake  Bays,  for  example,  are  united  by  the 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal.  The  Delaware  and 
Raritan  Canal  in  turn  connects  the  upper  part  of  the 
Delaware  River  with  a  tributary  into  New  York  harbor. 
From  here  it  is  possible  to  go  to  New  England  by  way  of 
Long  Island  Sound,  or  up  the  Hudson  River  tc  Lake 
George  and  Lake  Champlain.  Proper  dredging  and  deep- 
ening of  the  waterways  would  make  it  possible  to  go  by 
water  from  New  England  to  the  South  without  going  out- 
side into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Erie  Canal  across  New 
York  State,  which  connects  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson 
River,  was  a  great  achievement  for  its  day  and  laid  the 


204  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

foundation  for  the  later  commercial  greatness  of  New  York 
City.  There  is  no  complete  transcontinental  waterway 
from  East  to  West.  The  Panama  Canal,  however,  serves 
as  a  medium  of  water  transportation  between  the  East  and 
the  West.  A  system  of  inland  waterways  composed  of 
rivers,  lakes,  and  connecting  canals  is  still  necessary  in 
spite  of  the  recent  development  of  railroads.  Such  a  sys- 
tem can  carry  at  a  lower  cost  the  cheap,  bulky,  and  non- 
perishable  articles  of  freight.  The  relative  cost  of  ship- 
ing  by  rail  and  by  water  may  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of 
the  rates  charged  for  shipping  iron  ore  in  the  Great  Lakes 
region.  The  ore  is  carried  for  about  a  thousand  miles  by 
boat  from  Duluth  to  a  spot  on  Lake  Erie.  Here  it  is  car- 
ried by  rail  to  Pittsburgh,  a  distance  of  but  a  hundred  and 
thirty-five  miles.  The  latter  part  of  the  transportation, 
however,  costs  about  as  much  as  the  former. 

Water-power  was  a  natural  resource  which  the  colonists 
found  in  great  abundance.  Especially  in  New  England 
Water  were  ^ere  numerous  swiftly-flowing  streams, 

power:          along  which  our  early  manufacturing  developed. 

Importance.       ^       . 

To-day  there  are  scattered  about  the  count  ry 
ruins  of  old  colonial  mills,  which  possessed  a  revolving 
water  wheel  and  a  mill  race.  The  invention  of  the  steam 
engine  and  the  utilization  of  coal  completely  changed  the 
character  of  American  industry  during  the  last  century. 
The  future  scarcity  of  coal  promises  a  return,  however,  to 
water-power.  Hydro-electric  stations  may  supplant  the 
steam-driven  generators.  Instead  of  the  old  water  wheel, 
electric  turbines  are  installed  in  the  stream.  Whereas 
formerly  the  water-power  was  used  locally,  it  can 
now  be  transmitted  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  the  form  of 
electricity. 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         205 

The  best  illustration  of  the  utilization  of  water  as  a 
source  of  power  is  seen  at  Niagara  Falls.  The  power  gen- 
erated by  the  two  stations  located  here  is  used,  not  only 
in  the  neighboring  industrial  plants,  but  also  in 
the  city  of  Buffalo.  Here  it  lights  the  streets, 
runs  the  trolleys,  and  supplies  power  for  various  indus- 
trial purposes.  The  Pacific  Coast  also  offers  numerous 
excellent  water-power  sites.  In  fact,  some  economic 
writers  predict  the  western  movement  of  industry  when 
the  ultimate  change  from  steam  to  hydro-electric  power 
has  been  effected.  However,  the  Atlantic  Coast  itself 
possesses  numerous  good  sites  for  the  utilization  of  its 
abundant  water-power.  Regulating  the  flow  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  by  the  construction  of  dams  and  reservoirs 
will  not  only  prevent  floods  and  facilitate  transportation, 
but  it  will  also  provide  a  source  of  water-power. 

Hydro-electric  sites  cannot  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way 
that  our  forests  have  been,  but  they  can  be  monopolized  by 
individuals  and  corporations.  The  new  public  Condusion 
conscience  must  therefore  see  that  these  impor- 
tant natural  resources  are  safeguarded  for  future  genera- 
tions. In  order  to  protect  the  nation  from  such  private 
monopoly,  Congress  enacted  in  1920  a  water-power  bill 
which  permits  the  leasing  of  water-power  sites  by  the 
national  government.  When  the  lease  expires,  the  govern- 
ment can  take  over  at  an  appraised  valuation  such  hydro- 
electric plants  as  have  been  constructed.  A  commission, 
consisting  of  the  secretaries  of  war,  agriculture,  and  the 
interior,  also  has  the  power  to  grant  a  lease  to  a  private 
company.  The  important  point  is  that  the  property  rights 
remain  with  the  government,  which  can  specify  the  royalty 
to  be  charged  for  the  use  of  the  water-power  site. 


206  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  and  give  the  important  characteristics  of  the  four  great 
geographical  divisions  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Compare  the  physiography  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Coasts. 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  future  economic  possibilities  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Plateau? 

4.  Explain  the  economic  importance  of  each  of  our  territorial 
possessions. 

5.  What  are  the  three  great  staples  in  American  agriculture? 
Where  is  each  produced? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  timber  areas  in  the  United  States  and  the 
chief  woods  produced  in  each? 

7.  What  minerals  are  most  vital  to  industry?    Tell  why  in  each 
case. 

8.  Show  how  the  United  States  is  favored  in  each  of  the  above 
minerals. 

9.  How  have  gold  and  silver  affected  our  national  development? 

10.  Why  is  petroleum  such  an  important  product  to-day? 

11.  Trace  some  of  the  important  water  routes  of  the  United  States. 

12.  Show  some  of  the  problems  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  what 
has  been  done  to  overcome  them. 

13.  Discuss  the  relative  cost  of  rail  and  water  transportation. 

14.  Show  how  the  power  of  Niagara  Falls  has  been  used  industrially. 

15.  Compare  the  East  and  the  West  with  respect  to  water-power 
sites. 

1 6.  Compare  the  methods  of  obtaining  power  used  in  the  old 
water  mills  with  those  employed  in  modern  hydro-electric  plants. 

17.  What  has  Congress  done  to  protect  our  water-power  sites? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  precious  metals  and  the  exploration  of  the  United  States. 

2.  King  Cotton  in  American  history. 

3.  The  natural  resources  of  China  and  the  United  States. 

4.  The  inland  waterways  of  the  East. 

5.  The  effects  of  the  Panama  Canal  upon  American  commerce. 

6.  The  age  of  steel. 

7.  The  future  supply  of  coal. 


Possibilities  of  Our  Economic  Environment         207 

8.  The  history  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 

9.  New  sources  of  petroleum  and  world  politics. 

10.  The  new  importance  of  water. 

1 1 .  American  agriculture  and  the  World  War. 

12.  The  free  passage  of  coast-wise  ships  through  the  Panama 
Canal. 

REFERENCES 

BULLETINS.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

HARWOOD,  W.  S.     The  New  Earth. 

JOHNSON,  E.  R.    Ocean  and  Inland  Water  Transportation. 

KELSEY,  C.     The  Physical  Basis  of  Society. 

QUICK,  H.     The  Good  Ship  Earth. 

SHALER,  N.  S.    Man  and  Nature  in  America. 

SMITH,  J.  R.     Commerce  and  Industry. 

UNITED  STATES  CENSUS  REPORTS.    Water  Power. 

WARREN,  G.  F.    Elements  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CONSERVATION  OF  OUR  NATURAL  RESOURCES 

I.  The  development  of  economic  ideals 

1.  Prosperity 

2.  Conservation  and  efficiency: 

a.  Meaning 

b.  The  former  waste 

c.  The  new  movement 
II.  Conservation  of  forests 

1.  Its  importance 

2.  Destruction  of  forests 

3.  The  effects 

4.  The  remedies 

III.  Conservation  of  minerals 

1.  Coal  and  iron 

2.  Petroleum 

IV.  Reclamation  of  land 

1.  Principle  of  diminishing  returns 

2.  Opposing  forces 

3.  The  progress  made 

4.  Restoration  of  soil  fertility 

5.  Irrigation 

6.  Drainage 

The  Development  of  Economic  Ideals. — Prosperity 
to  an  individual  means  an  abundance  of  personal  wealth. 
p,.os.  Prosperity  to  a  nation,  in  a  similar  sense,  means 

penty.  an  abundance  of  national  wealth.  Although 
national  prosperity  depends  upon  the  wealth  of  natural  re- 
sources, physical  environment  is  not  the  only  factor  in  its 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  209 

determination.  Man's  part  in  the  production  of  wealth 
must  be  considered  as  well  as  the  part  played  by  nature. 
China  and  the  United  States  are  about  the  same  size  and 
are  equally  endowed  with  rich  gifts  of  nature.  The  more 
progressive  western  nation,  however,  has  made  a  much 
better  adjustment  to  its  economic  environment.  It  has 
created  more  wealth  and  secured  a  greater  economic  sur- 
plus. By  surplus  wealth  we  mean  the  wealth  created  by 
society  which  is  more  than  is  needed  for  immediate  con- 
sumption. Consequently,  prosperity  is  the  rule  in  Amer- 
ica, and  poverty  in  China.  Later  we  shall  consider  how  this 
surpluses  divided.  Although  there  may  be  great  national 
prosperity,  many  individuals  may  not  share  in  this  pros- 
perity if  the  wealth  of  the  country  is  very  unequally 
divided.  Individuals  may  be  happy  in  spite  of  poverty, 
like  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  Ordinarily,  however,  a  certain 
amount  of  material  wealth  is  necessary  to  well-being. 
Wealth  and  welfare  are  not  identical,  but  the  latter  does 
depend  in  every-day  life  upon  the  former.  National  pros- 
perity, like  individual  prosperity,  is 'not  an  end  in  itself, 
but  merely  a  means  to  welfare. 

A  second  economic  ideal  is  that  of  conservation.     If 
prosperity  means  an  abundance  of  wealth,  conservation 
means  its  wise  use.     What  thrift  is  to  an  indi-    Conserva_ 
vidual,   conservation  is  to  a  nation.     Another   *£™ 
economic  ideal  is  that  of  efficiency,  which  may 
be  measured  by  maximum  results.     Efficiency  and  con- 
servation are  supplementary,  for  the  one  means  maximum 
production  and  the  other  minimum  waste.     Our  ideal  of 
conservation  implies  not  only  consideration  for  one's  fellow 
citizens,  but  also  for  posterity.     A  ruthless  individualism 
of  one  generation  may  impair  the  prosperity,  and  hence 
o 


2io  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

welfare,  of  the  following  generation.  Our  consideration 
of  social  heredity  has  shown  us  how  the  torch  of  civiliza- 
tion has  been  passed  down  from  age  to  age.  It  is  also 
important  that  each  generation  does  not  waste  the  riches 
of  its  economic  environment.  A  progressive  society  should 
strive  for  constant  improvement  upon  its  physical  and 
social  environment,  so  that  the  world  of  to-morrow  will  be 
a  better  place  in  which  to  live  than  the  world  of  to-day. 
This  is  the  romance  of  history. 

The  great  natural  resources  of  America  at  first  seemed 
inexhaustible.  To  the  early  settlers,  the  New  World  was 
The  former  an  El  Dorado.  This  golden  dream  seemed  ful- 
filled in  the  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth  of 
the  new  lands.  Trappers  slew  vast  numbers  of  wild 
animals  for  their  skins  only  and  discarded  their  valuable 
remains.  It  is  said  that  the  Indians  frequently  used  only 
the  tongue  of  the  buffalo.  Although  a  century  ago  the 
western  plains  resounded  to  the  thunder  of  great  herds  of 
bison,  that  animal  is  now  practically  extinct.  America 
was  similarly  rich  in  wild  geese  and  other  fowl,  which  have 
since  been  largely  exterminated.  A  similar  slaughter  of 
the  trees  took  place.  The  growing  population  was  also 
indifferent  to  the  careless  methods  of  farming  which 
exhausted  the  soil.  More  land  could  be  had  almost  for  the 
asking. 

Finally  the  West  was  settled  and  there  was  little  remain- 
ing free  land.  Rising  prices  indicated  that  there  might 
The  new  later  be  a  pressure  of  population  upon  food  sup- 
ent'  ply.  Certain  commodities  were  becoming  scarce 
and  expensive.  Others  were  being  imported  from  foreign 
countries.  Gradually  there  dawned  upon  the  mind  of  the 
American  people  a  new  national  ideal, — that  of  conserva- 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  211 

tion.  President  Roosevelt  and  Gifford  Pinchot  were  the 
leaders  of  this  movement.  They  sounded  a  call  to  arms 
against  the  wanton  waste  of  our  natural  resources  and 
their  exploitation  for  private  gain.  A  campaign  of  popular 
education  was  begun  concerning  the  future  production  of 
such  essentials  as  coal  and  timber.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  new  giants  of  production  known  as  trusts  were  lurk- 
ing in  the  background,  awaiting  an  opportunity  to  exploit 
the  water-power  sites  of  the  nation. 

Conservation  of    Forests. — The    conservation    move- 
ment began  with  the  attempts  to  save  the  forests  from 
destruction.     These     are      important     natural   itsimpor- 
resources  not  only  because  of  their  timber,  but   1 
also  because  of  the  part  they  play  in  the  conservation  of 
soil  moisture.     Again,  by  maintaining  the  soil  moisture, 
they  insure  a  constant  and  regular  source  of  water  for  the 
small  streams  which  feed  the  larger  rivers.     Thus,  forests 
affect  the  problems  of  wood  supply,  soil  moisture,  water- 
power  and  transportation. 

The  ruthless  cutting  of  our  forests  continued  long  after 
the  pioneer  days  of  American  history  had  passed.  In  the 
last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Destruction 
increase  in  timber  cut  was  almost  twice  as  ' 
great  as  the  increase  in  population.  Our  present  rate  of 
consumption  of  timber  is  almost  three  times  as  great  as 
its  estimated  growth.  There  is  a  qualitative  as  well  as  a 
quantitative  aspect  to  the  problem  of  timber  cutting. 
Instead  of  selecting  only  the  mature  trees,  almost  all  the 
standing  timber  was  frequently  cut.  This  method  of 
forest  destruction  is  most  reprehensible.  Another  cause  of 
destruction  is  found  in  the  frequent  forest  fires.  The 
annual  loss  from  this  source  alone  has  been  estimated  at 


212  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

fifty  million  dollars.  Sparks  from  locomotives,  or  embers 
from  camp  fires,  may  start  a  conflagration.  If  a  wind  fans 
the  smouldering  underbrush,  the  entire  forest  may  catch 
fire.  Forest  rangers  can  prevent  the  destruction  from 
spreading,  if  the  fire  is  detected  early  enough.  Such 


Photo  by  U .  S.  Forest  6Vn  ice 
FOREST  FIRE  DESTRUCTION  IN  MINNESOTA 

methods  as  forming  an  open  or  cleared  circle  around  the 
fire  easily  prevent  it  from  spreading.  Adequate  fire- 
fighting  apparatus  may  also  be  the  means  of  saving  both 
property  and  human  lives. 

The  most  apparent  result  of  the  destruction  of  forests  is 
found  in  its  effect  upon  the  future  supply  of  lumber.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  at  the  present  alarming  rate  of  consump- 
tion our  timber  will  last  but  a  single  generation.  The 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  213 

effects  of  deforestation  upon  the  soil  are  even  more  impor- 
tant. Forest  fires  feed  upon  the  dry  leaves  and  branches 
left  in  the  wake  of  deforestation.  This  deprives  The 
the  soil  of  the  rich  layer  of  vegetable  matter  called  effects- 
humus  and  bakes  hard  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Instead 
of  soaking  into  the  ground,  the  rain  runs  off  rapidly,  caus- 
ing floods  in  the  streams  and  rivers.  This  has  the  further 
evil  effect  of  washing  off  the  soil  from  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
and  mountains.  In  some  sections  these  washouts  have 
become  a  serious  problem.  The  roots  of  the  trees  and  other 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  act  as  a  kind  of  sponge  to  hold 
the  water  after  a  rain  and  to  prevent  it  from  running  off 
too  rapidly.  Where  forest  areas  have  been  denuded,  the 
soil  has  been  deprived  of  its  natural  reservoirs.  A  scarcity 
of  rainfall  very  quickly  takes  the  form  of  drought  in  these 
affected  regions.  In  the  late  summer,  springs  and  streams 
dry  up  and  both  crops  and  cattle  are  threatened.  Besides 
causing  floods,  droughts,  and  washouts,  the  effects  of 
deforestation  upon  water-power  sites  are  important. 
Hydro-electric  stations  require  a  certain  volume  and  cur- 
rent of  water.  Irregularities  of  flow  cause  serious  loss  and 
sometimes  necessitate  the  temporary  closing  of  the  plant. 
The  very  nature  of  the  problem  suggests  many  remedial 
measures.  If  conservation  means  wise  use,  it  is  surely 
folly  to  cut  down  young  trees.  The  maximum  The 
of  timber  production  should  be  secured  by  cut-  remed 
ting  down  mature  trees  only.  Forests  should  be  constantly 
picked  over  and  not  systematically  destroyed.  Again, 
reforestation  is  vital.  In  Germany,  it  is  required  that  the 
cutting  of  trees  be  accompanied  by  replanting.  Arbor 
day  in  the  United  States  may  have  had  as  yet  little  material 
result,  but  it  has  served  to  educate  our  young  people  to 


214  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

plant  trees.  Another  method  of  attacking  the  problem  is 
to  set  aside  certain  forest  reservations.  The  national  gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  a  number  of  individual  states,  has 
already  taken  such  action.  Forest  rangers  are  employed 
to  keep  constantly  upon  the  lookout  against  signs  of  fires. 
On  the  whole  it  would  seem  that  state  action  is  inadequate 
and  that  a  comprehensive  national  policy  is  imperative. 

Conservation  of  Minerals. — Forests  may  be  replanted 
and  the  lost  fertility  of  the  soil  restored  by  some  artificial 
Coal  and       means.     But  minerals  taken  from  the  earth  can 
on*  never  be  restored.     Coal  and  iron  have  had  so 

important  a  place  in  shaping  our  recent  civilization  that 
the  past  century  has  been  called  the  age  of  steel.  It  is 
often  asserted  that,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption, 
the  available  supply  of  anthracite  will  be  exhausted  in  the 
course  of  the  century,  and  the  bituminous  coal  in  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  years.  Recent  reports  from  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  however,  are  more  opti- 
mistic about  the  supply  of  coal.  It  is  possible  to  use 
inferior  grades  which  are  not  now  mined.  The  policy  of 
merely  " skimming  the  cream"  from  a  coal  mine  is  to  be 
condemned.  The  deeper  and  poorer  veins  have  not  always 
been  worked  and  frequently  the  mine  has  been  abandoned 
too  soon.  Such  a  policy  has  sometimes  made  the  mine 
unworkable,  although  the  scarcity  of  coal  would  have  made 
such  an  operation  profitable.  Provision  should  also  be 
made  to  prevent  the  collapse  of  the  shafting  and  the  flood- 
ing of  the  mine  by  water.  River  bottoms  are  now  being 
dredged  for  the  layer  of  coal  which  has  been  precipitated 
there  in  the  process  of  transportation. 

Conflicting  reports  are  given  out  concerning  the  supply 
of  petroleum,  and  its  exhaustion  in  the  near  future.     New 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  2 1 5 

sources  are  constantly  being  discovered.     Although  con- 
servation is  to  be  stressed,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
we  are  living  in  a  progressive  society.     Other    petf 
sources  of  energy,  such  as  hydro-electricity,  hold 
great  promise  for  the  future.     The  utilization  of  the  tides 
may  not  be  impossible  for  some  later  generation.    There 
is  also  the  age-long  dream  of  deriving  energy  from  the  sun 
by  some  focussing  process  which  will  concentrate  its  rays 
for  the  production  of  heat. 

Reclamation  of  Land. — The  principle  of  diminishing 
returns  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  Malthusian  law  of  popula- 
tion. The  pressure  of  population  upon  food  . 

Principle  of 

supply  has  been  explained  as  the  tendency  of  diminishing 
population  to  increase  faster  than  the  available 
supply  of  food.  We  are  now  ready  to  see  whether  there 
is  really  a  law  which  determines  the  yield  from  land,  that 
is,  from  natural  resources.  Although  the  law  of  diminish- 
ing returns  was  discovered  in  agriculture,  it  has  been 
applied  elsewhere  as,  for  illustration,  to  the  working  of  a 
mine.  This  principle  states  that,  after  a  certain  point  has 
been  reached  in  the  cultivation  of  a  piece  of  land,  it  will 
yield  a  smaller  and  smaller  increased  product  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  in  capital  and  labor  expended.  As 
population  increases  land  is  worked  more  intensively,  that 
is,  a  greater  amount  of  capital  and  labor  is  expended  upon 
the  same  land.  In  Europe  the  land  is  cultivated  more 
intensively  than  in  America,  where  a  relatively  greater 
amount  of  land  makes  a  more  extensive  cultivation  profit- 
able. With  the  growth  of  population  in  America,  however, 
the  land  has  been  worked  more  intensively  than  formerly. 
When  the  increased  yield  from  the  land  is  no  longer  pro- 
portionate to  the  increased  expenditure  of  capital  and 


2 1 6  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

labor,  the  point  of  diminishing  returns  has  been  reached. 
Suppose  that  a  farmer,  for  example,  applies  three  times  as 
much  labor  and  capital  on  a  given  field  as  last  year,  but 
receives  only  twice  the  crop  yield.  Although  there  is  an 
increase  in  yield,  it  is  not  proportionate.  Therefore,  wo 
say  the  land  has  reached  the  point  of  diminishing  returns 

It  has  been  said  that  nature's  part  in  production  obeys 
the  law  of  diminishing  returns,  but  that  man's  part  is 
Opposing  capable  of  increasing  returns.  In  other  words 
forces.  a  progressive  society  is  constantly  making  better 
adjustments.  New  inventions  and  discoveries  may  more 
than  counterbalance  the  decreasing  tendency  in  produc- 
tion from  land.  American  ingenuity  has  been  constantly 
offsetting  this  tendency,  whereas  in  China  there  has  been  no 
such  strong  progressive  force.  Here  many  die  of  starva- 
tion because  ancestral  methods  of  farming  and  transporta- 
tion are  still  in  vogue.  America,  on  the  other  hand,  gave 
to  the  world  the  invention  of  the  combined  harvester  and 
reaper.  Greater  returns  as  well  as  decreased  effort  are 
secured  by  such  devices  as  the  steam  plow  and  the  gasoline 
tractor.  Seed  is  sown  by  a  drill,  which  not  only  covers  the 
seed  but  spreads  the  fertilizer.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  our  own  European  ancestors  were  at  first 
skeptical  of  the  steel  plow.  It  was  supposed  to  poison 
the  land  instead  of  opposing  its  tendency  toward  diminish- 
ing returns. 

To-day  the  farmer  has  ceased  to  be  an  untrained  worker. 
Agricultural  science  has  been  developed  in  school  and 
Thc  college.  The  national  and  state  governments 

progress  have  established  laboratories  and  maintained 

made. 

bureaus  of  information,  which  have  stimulated 
agricultural  progress.     Plant  diseases  such  as  blight  and 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  217 

scale  have  been  scientifically  investigated  for  the  benefit 
of  the  farmer.  New  and  better  varieties  of  plant  and 
animal  life  have  also  been  developed  by  a  careful  process 
of  breeding  and  seed  selection.  Natural  selection  is  an 
unconscious  process  which  has  evolved  the  strongest  and 
best  adapted  species  for  survival  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence. Man,  however,  has  domesticated  certain  plants  and 
animals,  that  is,  he  has  largely  removed  them  from  this 
struggle  for  existence.  He  has  then  practiced  artificial 
selection  among  them.  For  illustration,  he  has  selected 
for  breeding  purposes  those  cows  which  give  the  best  milk. 
Through  artificial  selection  he  has  also  produced  the  fat 
domestic  pig  from  the  scrawny  "  razor  back,"  which  had 
a  much  better  chance  of  survival  under  natural  conditions. 
By  a  similar  process  in  the  plant  world  the  tomato  has  been 
developed  from  a  weed.  Burbank,  the  "plant  wizard," 
has  thus  produced  new  and  better  varieties  of  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

In  a  progressive  society  man  is  constantly  fighting  the 
tendency  of  land  to  yield  diminishing  returns.  A  specific 
illustration  is  his  attempt  to  restore  fertility  Restoration 
to  soil  exhausted  by  the  one-crop  system.  The 
one-crop  system  lessens  soil  fertility  because  it 
continually  drains  the  same  necessary  elements  from  the 
soil.  Again,  it  is  favorable  to  the  development  of  enemy 
insects  and  bacteria.  It  can  be  avoided,  however,  by  the 
rotation  of  crops.  The  planting  of  cover  crops  is  another 
cheap  and  effective  method  of  restoring  soil  fertility.  The 
cover  crop  is  planted  in  the  fall  after  harvest.  Later  it  is 
plowed  under  and  serves  as  a  fertilizer.  The  legumes, 
like  peas,  beans,  alfalfa,  and  clover  have  additional  value, 
for  their  roots  possess  nodules  containing  ammonia.  These 


2l8 


Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 


are  the  product  of  bacteria  which  have  the  power  of 
extracting  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Other  necessary  chem- 
ical elements  in  the  soil  are  potassium  and  phosphorus. 
Chemical  fertilizers,  such  as  bone  products,  are  rich  in 
these  elements.  Ordinary  stable  manure  is  another  effec- 
tive fertilizer.  Unfortunately,  it  is  frequently  stored  in 
barns  without  cement  floors  and  consequently  loses  its 
valuable  ammonia.  Humus,  which  is  largely  made  up 
of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  is  a  very  effective  aid  to  soil 
conservation. 

Water  is  another  vital  element  in  increasing  production. 
Irrigation  is  the  process  by  which  this  substance  is  sup- 
plied to  arid  lands.  Before  the  white  man  came 
to  the  great  arid  Southwest  the  Pueblo  Indians 
practiced  irrigation.  The  ancient  Egyptians  and  Chal- 
deans, like  the  Incas  of  Peru,  also  understood  this  principle. 
The  first  great  work  of  irrigation  in  the  United  States  was 


Irrigation. 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 
THE  DESERT  BEFORE  IRRIGATION 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources 


219 


Ewing  Galloway 


IRRIGATED  FARM  LAND  IN  ARIZONA 


undertaken  by  the  Mormons  of  Utah,  who  ffmade  the 
desert  to  blossom  as  the  rose."  The  Horace  Greeley  Irri- 
gation Colony  was  begun  in  1870  and  named  after  the 
editor-statesman  whose  advice  has  been  summed  up  in  the 
words,  "Young  man,  go  West."  Since  that  time,  when 
there  were  but  twenty  thousand  acres  of  irrigated  lands,  the 


220  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

work  has  gone  on  so  rapidly  that  to-day  there  are  about  ten 
million  acres  of  such  land.  In  1902  the  National  Reclama- 
tion Act  was  passed,  which  provides  for  the  construction  of 
irrigation  works  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior.  The  earlier  Homestead  Act,  under  which 
the  new  lands  of  the  West  were  first  opened  for  settlement, 
had  not  prevented  a  few  individuals  from  getting  control 
of  large*  areas.  To  prevent  such  concentration  the  Act 
of  1902  limits  the  holdings  of  any  one  person  to  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  acres.  The  expense  of  constructing  irri- 
gation dams  and  canals  is  met  by  the  sale  of  public  land. 
The  settlers,  who  take  up  the  irrigated  lands,  are  required 
to  pay  back  to  the  government  in  ten  installments  their 
share  of  the  cost  of  irrigation.  The  government  has 
merely  advanced  the  money  and  done  the  work  of  con- 
struction. After  the  works  have  been  paid  for,  they  are 
turned  over  to  the  local  government  for  future  administra- 
tion. 

Drainage  is  the  process  by  which  water  is  subtracted 
instead  of  added  to  the  soil.  The  Reclamation  Act  of  1902 
provides  for  this  phase  of  the  work  also.  Indi- 
vidual states  had  drained  a  total  of  eight  million 
acres  of  land,  but  the  national  government  had  done  little 
prior  to  this  time.  There  are  sixty  million  acres  of  swamp 
land  in  the  United  States.  This  is  frequently  a  very  rich 
soil,  formed  by  decayed  vegetable  matter  and  silt  carried 
down  by  rivers.  The  Florida  Everglades  and  the  Great 
Dismal  Swamp  of  Virginia  are  good  illustrations  of  such 
lands.  The  soil  is  of  the  richest  and  covered  only  in  patches 
by  water  which  is  seldom  deep.  The  drainage  of  most 
of  this  territory  would  not  be  nearly  so  difficult  an  engi- 
neering feat  as  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 


Conservation  of  Our  Natural  Resources  221 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  and  explain  the  implications  of  several  economic  ideals. 

2.  Explain  the  relationship  between  wealth  and  welfare. 

3.  Upon  what  factors  does  national  prosperity  depend? 

4.  Show  the  relationship  between  the  ideals  of  efficiency  and 
conservation;  between  conservation  and  social  welfare. 

5.  Illustrate  the  former  waste  of  our  natural  resources. 

6.  What  were  some  causes  of  the  movement  for  conservation? 

7.  Who  were  some  of  its  leaders  and  what  did  they  do? 

8.  Explain  the  causes  and  effects  of  deforestation. 

9.  What  remedial  steps  have  been  taken? 

10.  What  measures  can  you  suggest  for  the  conservation  of  our 
minerals? 

11.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  principle  of  diminishing  returns. 

12.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  opposing  forces. 

13.  What  have  been  some  important  factors  in  recent  agricultural 
progress? 

14.  Compare  natural  selection  with  artificial  selection  and  show 
how  man  has  utilized  the  latter. 

15.  What  are  the  essential  elements  in  the  soil?    How  can  each  of 
these  be  restored? 

16.  Discuss  the  Reclamation  Act  of  1902. 

17.  Prove  the  value  of  irrigation. 

1 8.  Explain  some  irrigation  work  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

19.  What  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  draining  swamp  land? 


TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Rise  of  the  conservation  movement  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Forests  as  a  national  asset. 

3.  Forest  reservations  and  their  care. 

4.  New  sources  of  physical  energy. 

5.  New  species  of  plants  and  animals. 

6.  Early  irrigation  projects. 

7.  The  drainage  of  the  Everglades. 


222  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

REFERENCES 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 

Conservation  of  natural  resources. 
HARWOOD,  W.  S.     The  New  Earth. 
KELSEY,  C.     The  Physical  Basis  of  Society. 
Proceedings  of  the  Conference  of  Governors  in  1008. 
QUICK,  H.     The  Good  Ship  Earth. 
Reports  of  National  Conservation  Commission. 
United  States  Census  Reports  on  Irrigation. 
VAN  HISE,  C.  R.     Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  in  the  United 

States. 
WARREN,  G.  F.    Elements  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

I.  Industrial  society 

1.  Factors  in  production 

2.  Characteristics  of  industry: 

a.  Interdependence 

b.  Inventions 

c.  Social  classes 

3.  Stages  of  development 

4.  Importance  of  the  Industrial  Revolution: 

a.  A  comparison 

b.  Old  methods 

II.  Industry  before  the  age  of  machinery 

1 .  The  manorial  system 

2.  The  guilds 

3.  Later  changes 

III.  The  Industrial  Revolution 

1.  The  invention  of  machinery 

2.  The  factory  system : 

a.  General  features 

b.  The  consequences 

3.  Early  American  manufacturing 

4.  Later  development 

Just  as  American  political  development  cannot  be  under- 
stood without  some  knowledge  of  its  European  back- 
ground, so  the  economic  development  of  our  rich  natural 
resources  was  conditioned  upon  England's  earlier  industrial 
progress.  A  brief  survey  of  the  State  as  a  social  institu- 
tion was  necessary  before  our  study  of  the  American  State 

223 


224  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

in  particular.  A  similar  sketch  of  the  evolution  of  indus- 
trial society  is  necessary  before  we  undertake  a  study  of 
the  present  problems  of  industry  in  our  American 
democracy. 

Industrial  Society.  —  Just  as  protection  is  the  object 
of  a  politically  organized  society,  so  production  is  the  end 
Factors  in  of  economic  society.  The  two  primary  factors 
on*  in  production  are  land  and  labor.  Land,  in  its 
economic  sense,  means  limited  natural  resources  and 
includes  such  things  as  mineral  wealth  and  water  resources. 
It  represents  nature's  part  in  the  production  of  wealth. 
Man's  part  is  represented  by  labor,  which  broadly  speaking 
is  the  wage-earning  population.  The  production  of 
wealth,  however,  is  at  present  rarely  achieved  by  the 
combination  of  these  two  primary  factors  only.  Very 
early  in  the  development  of  industry  a  secondary  factor 
known  as  capital,  came  into  existence.  Capital  may  be 
denned  as  the  product  of  past  labor  used  for  further  pro- 
duction. Material  wealth  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds 
of  goods.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  those  kinds  of  goods, 
like  food  and  clothing,  which  serve  man's  immediate  wants; 
in  the  second  place,  there  are  such  articles  as  plows  and 
engines,  which  further  directly  the  production  of  more 
wealth.  Tools  and  machinery  belong  to  this  class,  and 
such  goods  are  known  as  capital. 

The  development  of  industrial  society  has  been  char- 

acterized  by   an   increasing   amount   of   capital.     When 

primitive  man  used  several  days'  labor  to  fashion 

Character-  ,  ..  .  •«••»••« 

istics:  a  crude  sort  of  spade,  instead  of  satisfying  his 


hunger  directly  by  digging  for  clams  with  his 
naked  hands,  he  was  creating  capital.     Seed, 
which  was  saved  for  some  future  planting  and  not  eaten, 


The  Industrial  Revolution  225 

also  became  capital.  Indeed,  capital  has  been  termed  the 
seed  of  industry.  The  development  of  industrial  society 
is  marked  by  another  characteristic  which  is  closely  related 
to  the  first  one.  Social  organization  and  cooperation 
accompany  the  division  of  labor  made  necessary  by  the 
development  of  capital.  This  is  absent  among  primitive 
groups,  where  each  family  is  a  complete  economic  unit. 
The  Industrial  Revolution  carried  division  of  labor  to  a 
degree  never  before  known.  Thus,  in  more  advanced 
countries  there  is  a  complete  specialization  of  effort;  one 
man  farms,  another  makes  shoes,  and  still  another 
exchanges  goods  produced  in  the  community. 

In  addition  to  the  growth  of  social  organization  there 
goes  on  a  process  of  invention  and  discovery  within  the 
group,  whereby  man  has  been  enabled  to  util-  Inventions 
ize  more  fully  his  economic  environment.  Dis- 
coveries and  inventions,  such  as  the  rotation  of  crops,  the 
expansive  power  of  steam,  and  the  modern  mechanical 
inventions  have  multiplied  enormously  the  productivity 
of  nature.  This  has  been  called  man's  conquest  of  nature 
and  is  part  of  the  process  of  the  evolution  of  industrial 
society.  The  twin  forces  of  invention  and  of  social  organi- 
zation have  created  a  social  surplus,  that  is,  a  surplus  of 
goods  above  what  is  needed  for  present  consumption. 
Each  new  invention  or  change  in  organization  means  a 
problem  of  social  adjustment,  and  the  transition  period 
may  be  one  of  hardship. 

Another  characteristic  of  industry  may  be  found  in  the 
formation  of  social  classes,  whose  existence  is  due  to  the 
development  of  industrial  society,  as  well  as  to   social 
the  growth  of  the  State,  the  effect  of  war,  and  ' 
numerous  other  forces.     The  earliest  division  of  labor  and 


226  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

of  social  classes  was  based  on  sex.  In  savage  societies  the 
women  worked  while  the  men  hunted.  Later,  society  was 
divided  into  a  slave  and  a  leisure  class.  We  have  seen  how 
the  conquering  group  exploited  the  labor  of  the  conquered 
by  the  institution  of  slavery.  Upon  it  developed  many 
ancient  cultures  and  civilizations.  Modern  industrial 
society  involves  social  distinctions  based  upon  labor  and 
capital.  These  groups,  however,  should  not  be  antago- 
nistic, but  complementary  and  interdependent. 

Social  evolution  divides  the  development  of  industrial 

society  into  four  stages:  (i)  hunting  and  fishing;  (2)  pas- 

f       toral;  (3)  agricultural,  and  (4)  industrial.    There 

develop-        is  no  clearly  cut  line  of  demarcation  between 

ment. 

these  stages.  Like  other  periods  of  history,  one 
gradually  fades  into  the  other.  Often  we  may  see  both 
existing  side  by  side.  Again,  some  groups  advance  more 
rapidly  than  others  and  arrive  earlier  at  an  advanced  stage. 
With  the  passage  from  the  hunting  and  fishing  periods  to 
the  pastoral,  and  then  to  the  agricultural  stage,  there  are 
developed  the  early  handicrafts  like  weaving  and  poturv 
making.  When  the  fourth  stage  is  reached,  the  society 
has  usually  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization. 

The  Industrial  Revolution  took  place  after  European 
civilization  had  long  been  in  the  last  stage  of  economic 
impor-  development.  It  occurred  during  the  last  half 
tance  of  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  part  of  the  nine- 

Industrial 

Revolution:  teenth  centuries.  The  French  Revolution, 
A  comparison.  wm'ch  took  pjace  about  the  same  time,  was  far 

more  spectacular  and  produced  great  social  and  political 
changes.  The  gradual,  progressive,  economic  changes  in 
the  method  of  production,  which  is  merely  another  way 
of  defining  the  Industrial  Revolution,  were  not  heralded 


The  Industrial  Revolution  227 

so  loudly  as  the  guillotining  of  a  few  aristocrats.  Never- 
theless, they  were  perhaps  of  far  greater  moment  to  the 
world.  The  Industrial  Revolution  made  it  possible  for 
Europe  to  double  her  population  within  the  next  century. 
Great  cities  arose  as  if  by  magic.  There  had  been  some 
improvement  in  the  method  of  agriculture  after  the  close 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  labor-saving  machinery  was  a 
distinct  development  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


OLD-FASHIONED  SPINNING  WHEEL 

Before  the  Industrial  Revolution  manufacturing  was 
still  done  by  hand,  as  the  etymology  of  the  word  indicates. 
The  distaff  had  been .  supplanted  by  the  spinning  wheel. 


228  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Weaving  was  done  by  a  cumbersome  hand  loom.  Home- 
spun cloth  was  worn  by  the  patriots  of  the  Revolution. 
The  old  Methods  of  illumination,  as  well  as  of  transpor- 
tation, had  made  little  progress.  Animal  fats  were 
used  for  making  candles  and  oils  required  in  lamps.  Mod- 
ern means  of  communication,  like  the  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone, were  undreamed  of.  Men  journeyed  on  land  like 


HAND  PRINTING  PRESS 

the  ancients,  on  foot  or  by  horseback.  On  sea  the  small 
sailing  vessel  had  not  been  replaced  by  the  huge  steamer. 
The  means  of  travel  used  by  Napoleon's  troops  were  hardly 
superior  to  those  of  the  legionaries  of  Caesar.  Indeed 
many  of  the  old  Roman  roads  offered  a  means  of  trans- 
portation superior  to  those  of  that  day.  In  order  to  appre- 
ciate fully  the  gains  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  let  us  see, 


The  Industrial  Revolution  229 

therefore,  what  economic  conditions  were  like  before  the 
great  mechanical  inventions  took  place  in  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries. 

Industry  Before  the  Age  of  Machinery.— During  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  agriculture  was  the  prevailing  occupa- 
tion, population  was  widely  scattered  through-  The 
out  the  country  districts  of  Europe.  The  insti-  manorial 
tution  of  feudalism,  determining  the  economic  as 
well  as  the  military  organization  of  society,  made  the  manor 
the  unit  of  agricultural  production.  The  serfs  who  tilled 
the  soil  lived  in  small  villages  close  to  the  protecting  walls 
of  the  neighboring  castle  or  manor  house.  Their  wretched 
huts,  with  thatched  roof  and  crude  interior,  often  shel- 
tered both  man  and  beast.  On  all  sides  lay  the  lord's 
estate  composed  of  woodland  for  hunting,  meadow  land 
for  grazing,  and  the  lands  for  actual  farming.  Some  of 
these  farm  lands  the  lord  kept  for  himself,  but  the  remainder 
was  divided  into  strips  for  the  serfs,  who  worked  not  only 
their  own  lands  but  also  their  lord's.  The  serf  also  paid 
the  lord  a  rent  in  the  form  of  a  share  of  the  produce  derived 
from  the  land  which  he  tilled  for  his  own  support.  Not 
only  were  methods  of  agriculture  crude,  but  one-third  of  the 
land  lay  fallow  every  year.  The  manor,  shut  off  from  the 
outside  world  and  supported  by  its  own  activities,  had 
little  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  Christendom. 

The  medieval  towns  were  the  birthplaces  of  commerce 
and  manufacturing,  which  were  carried  on  by  an  organiza- 
tion of  trade  and  craft  guilds.  A  trade  guild  Theguiids> 
included  the  merchants  of  that  particular  town, 
and  a  craft  guild,  the  makers  of  a  special  commodity.  Not 
only  was  a  fraternal  spirit  maintained  in  each  group,  but  a 
practical  monopoly  was  secured  by  the  members,  who 


230  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

excluded  outsiders  from  participation  in  the  production  of 
that  particular  commodity  and  also  placed  restrictions  upon 
their  own  activities.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
goods  produced  were  carefully  regulated.  Medieval  pro- 
duction was,  of  course,  carried  on  by  hand  and  under  the 
careful  eye  of  the  master.  A  boy  worked  as  an  apprentice 
while  he  learned  the  trade.  After  the  period  of  appren- 
ticeship had  expired,  he  became  a  journeyman  and  could 
then  work  for  wages.  Upon  the  accumulation  of  a  little 
capital,  he  might  set  up  a  shop  for  himself  and  become  a 
master  workman.  Medieval  trade  and  commerce  were 
carried  on  at  certain  markets  and  by  great  annual  fairs. 

The  Crusades  helped  to  break  down  feudalism  by  stimu- 
lating commerce,  while  the  Black  Death  hastened  the 
Later  gradual  decay  of  serfdom.  When  the  manorial 

changes.  System  began  to  decline,  a  class  of  farm  laborers 
appeared  to  take  the  place  of  the  medieval  serf.  With  the 
decline  of  guilds,  great  trading  companies  came  into  exist- 
ence, like  the  London  and  East  India  Companies,  which 
planned  to  carry  on  commerce  with  the  new  lands  that  had 
been  discovered.  The  craft  guilds  were  replaced  by  the 
domestic  system  of  manufacturing,  whereby  artisans  could 
now  set  up  hand  machinery  in  their  own  homes  and  there 
carry  on  production  free  from  the  protection  of  the  guild. 
The  necessity  for  some  sort  of  protection  in  industry, 
together  with  the  decline  of  feudalism,  led  finally  to  the 
development  of  strong  national  governments. 

The  Industrial    Revolution. — The    textile    industries 
,    .  were  the  first  to  be  revolutionized  by  the  use  of 

Ine  inven- 
tion of  machinery.    Under  the  domestic  system  weaving 

was  done  upon  the  hand  loom  by  the  father  of 
the  house,  assisted  perhaps  by  a  journeyman,  while  the 


The  Industrial  Revolution  231 

women  did  the  spinning  on  the  primitive  spinning  wheel. 
But,  during  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a 
great  series  of  mechanical  inventions  took  place,  which 
completely  altered  these  simple  processes.  Hargreaves 
invented  a  " spinning  jenny"  which  could  spin  several 
threads  at  once  out  of  the  raw  material,  while  Cartwright's 
power  loom  superseded  the  slower  method  of  weaving  by 
hand.  Another  Englishman,  named  Watt,  gave  to  the 
world  the  steam  engine.  Eli  Whitney's  cotton  gin  increased 
the  supply  of  raw  cotton  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 
These  were  the  first  of  a  series  of  great  mechanical  inven- 
tions which  have  continued  down  to  our  own  day.  The 
movement  began  in  England  in  the  manufacture  of  tex- 
tiles, but  has  spread  to  other  lands  and  other  industries. 
The  locomotive  and  the  steamboat  have  revolutionized 
means  of  transportation  as  much  as  the  earlier  inventions 
revolutionized  methods  of  manufacturing.  The  last  cen- 
tury has  been  called  the  age  of  steam  and  machinery. 

The  new  machinery,  with  its  great  demands  for  capital, 
was  responsible  for  the  change  to  the  factory  system  of 
manufacturing.     The    cumbersome   mechanical   The 
inventions  were  too  large  and  costly  for  the  cot-   *££££. 
tage  weavers  and  spinners  to  set  up  in  their  General 
homes.     Large  factories  were  therefore  built  to 
house  the  new  machinery,  and  production  went  from  the 
home  into  large  specialized  industrial  plants.     Since  this 
method  required  great  sums  of  money,  a  new  capitalistic 
class,  who  owned  the  instruments  of  production,  sprang 
into  existence.     The  laborers,  who  had  formerly  owned 
their  own  tools,  now  became  a  group  of  machine  operators 
who  no  longer  worked  for  themselves.     Population  shifted 
to  the  regions  where  coal  and  iron  were  to  be  found  and 


232  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

great  industrial  towns  grew  up.  Many  of  the  estates, 
which  had  formerly  been  regarded  as  common  pasture 
land,  were  inclosed  for  the  benefit  of  the  local  landlord, 
who  raised  sheep  in  order  to  procure  a  supply  of  raw  wool 
for  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 

This  change  worked  hardship  to  the  rural  workers  of  Eng- 
land, many  of  whom  came  to  the  town  to  seek  employment 
in  the  factories.  Again,  the  new  machinery  drove  many 
The  const-  of  the  hand  weavers  out  of  employment.  In 
alleys  and  cellars  some  kept  up  a  futile  competi- 
tion for  a  lower  wage,  while  others  retaliated  by  burning 
and  destroying  the  new  machinery.  A  period  of  adjust- 
ment was  necessary  before  labor  could  adapt  itself  to  the 
new  industrial  environment.  During  this  period  of  tran- 
sition there  was  considerable  disorder  and  distress.  In 
America,  there  was  comparatively  little  manufacturing 
before  the  Industrial  Revolution  and  such  problems  of 
adjustment  were  not  difficult  at  that  time.  But  in  the  long 
run,  machinery,  like  any  other  improvement,  was  of  great 
benefit  to  society.  It  not  only  multiplied  the  output,  but 
made  possible  the  lowering  of  prices  to  such  a  level  that  the 
new  goods  could  come  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  Indus- 
trial Revolution,  however,  divided  society  into  the  opposing 
camps  of  capital  and  labor,  whose  apparently  conflicting 
interests  have  created  many  modern  problems.  The  early 
social  effects  of  the  factory  system  were  disastrous  because 
the  first  factories  were  unhealthy  and  housing  conditions 
were  equally  unsanitary.  The  problems  of  women  in 
industry  and  of  child  labor  likewise  sprang  into  existence. 
The  Industrial  Revolution  was  largely  responsible  for 
England's  proud  position  of  industrial  and  commercial 
leadership,  which  continued  undisputed  until  the  economic 


The  Industrial  Revolution  233 

expansion  of  Germany  and  the  United  States.  Looking 
overseas  at  their  great  colonial  empire,  Englishmen  might 
well  be  proud  of  their  country;  but,  glancing  inwardly  at 
industrial  conditions,  the  picture  was  not  so  inspiring. 

Colonies  were  at  first  regarded  as  important  for  maintain- 
ing industrial  supremacy.  They  were  viewed  as  sources  of 
raw  materials  and  as  markets  for  finished  goods.  The  Rev- 
olutionary War  represented  the  opposition  of  Americans 
to  the  theory  that  colonies  existed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
mother  country.  It  was  forbidden  to  export  machinery  to 
the  colonies,  and  America  was  prohibited  from 
manufacturing  certain  things  which  were  pro-  Imlrican 
duced  in  England.  The  Navigation  Act  dealt  £*°nugfac~ 
a  severe  blow  to  New  England,  where  ship  build- 
ing and  commerce  were  flourishing.  The  Revolutionary 
War,  on  the  other  hand,  stimulated  national  industry,  for 
it  forced  the  colonies  to  do  their  own  manufacturing. 
When  the  war  was  over,  the  new  American  industries 
were  threatened  by  a  flood  of  European  goods.  Alexander 
Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  made  a  strong  plea 
for  protection  in  his  Report  on  Manufactures,  submitted 
to  Congress  in  1792.  The  War  of  1812  has  been  called  a 
second  war  for  independence.  This  is  true  in  an  economic, 
as  well  as  in  a  political,  sense.  Like  many  nations  of 
Europe,  America  had  been  dependent  upon  England  for 
her  manufactured  products.  The  Napoleonic  Wars  were 
a  temporary  check  to  the  commerce  of  England,  and 
America  was  forced  more  and  more  to  depend  upon  herself. 
The  manufacture  of  textiles  took  firm  root,  for  this  was 
the  period  of  rapid  growth  of  our  infant  industries.  While 
the  South  clung  to  agriculture,  the  industrialization  of  the 
North  went  on  steadily. 


234  Problems  of  A  meriean  Democracy 

The  need  for  increased  revenue  during  the  Civil  War  pro- 
duced high  protective  tariffs  which  resulted  in  increased 
home  manufactures.  From  1859  to  1869  the  capital  invest- 
Later  e<^  anc^  ^ne  num^er  °f  workers  employed  in 
develop-  manufacturing  doubled.  This  rapid  rate  of 

ment. 

increase  has  been  maintained  ever  since  the  war. 
The  value  of  our  manufactures  has  advanced  even  more 
rapidly  than  the  increase  in  our  population.  Along  with 
this  increased  valuation,  a  corresponding  change  in  the 
character  and  volume  of  our  exports  took  place.  Food- 
stuffs took  a  relatively  lower,  and  manufactured  articles  a 
relatively  higher,  place  in  the  list  of  exports.  The  more 
recent  industrialization  of  America  has  placed  this  nation 
in  competition  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany  in  the 
markets  of  the  World.  It  has  created  such  economic  prob- 
lems as  the  tariff  and  large  scale  production.  Social 
maladjustments,  such  as  child  labor,  urban  congestion, 
and  unhealthy  working  conditions  followed  the  Industrial 
Revolution  in  America  as  in  England. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  the  factors  in  production. 

2.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  industrial  society. 

3.  What  are  the  four  stages  of  development  of  industry? 

4.  Why  is  capital  important? 

5.  What  has  largely  created  the  surplus  wealth  of  modern  society? 

6.  How  did  modern  social  classes  arise? 

7.  State  the  advantages  of  an  industrial  society  over  an  agri- 
cultural community. 

8.  Why  does  an  industrial  society  combine  at  the  same  time  so 
many  benefits  and  evils? 

9.  Enumerate  both  benefits  and  evils. 

10.  Describe  the  organization  of  a  feudal  manor. 

11.  What  two  kinds  of  guilds  were  there? 


The  Industrial  Revolution  235 

12.  Describe  the  regulations  and  advantages  of  the  guilds. 

13.  What  factors  influenced  commerce  during  the  Middle  Ages? 

14.  What  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  "manufacture"? 

15.  What  economic  changes  took  place  at  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern  era? 

1 6.  Describe  some  old-fashioned  ways  of  doing  things. 

17.  Name  some  of  the  great  mechanical  inventions  that  intro- 
duced the  Industrial  Revolution. 

1 8.  Contrast  the  domestic  and  the  factory  system  of  industry. 

19.  Explain  the  effects  of  the  factory  system. 

20.  Sketch  the  history  of  early  American  industry. 

21.  How  do  you  account  for  its  later  development? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Woman's  share  in  primitive  industry. 

2.  The  medieval  guilds. 

3.  The  domestic  system  of  manufacturing  (e.  g.,  Silas  Marner  in 
George  Eliot's  novel). 

4.  The  great  mechanical  inventions  of  the  Industrial  Revolution. 

5.  The  economic  effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution. 

6.  The  age  of  capitalism. 

7.  The  Industrial  Revolution  in  America. 

8.  The  rise  of  American  industry  after  the  Civil  War. 

9.  The  economic  rivalry  of  England  and  Germany. 
10.  Society  as  a  social  organism. 

REFERENCES 

ASHLEY,  W.  J.    English  Economic  History. 

CHEYNEY,  E.  P.    Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England. 

COMAN,  K.    Industrial  History  of  the  United  States. 

MUNRO,  D.  C.    A  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

TOYNBEE,  A.     The  Industrial  Revolution. 

WRIGHT,  C.  D.    Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

MODERN  CAPITALISTIC  PRODUCTION 

I.  Division  of  labor 

1.  Nature: 

a.  In  life 

b.  In  industry 

2.  Kinds 

3.  Importance 

4.  Value  in  exchange: 

a.  Origin 

b.  Meaning 

5.  Effects  on  labor 

6.  Some  disadvantages 

7.  The  gains 

II.  Large  scale  production 

1.  Illustrations 

2.  Advantages: 

a.  Use  of  by-products 

b.  Other  economies 

3.  Limitations 

4.  Scientific  management: 

a.  Advantages 

b.  The  danger 

The  Industrial  Revolution  was  signalized  by  great 
changes  in  methods  of  economic  production.  The  inven- 
tion of  machinery  made  division  of  labor  more  complex, 
while  the  tremendous  amount  of  capital  required  stimulated 
large  scale  production  and  the  growth  of  the  modern 
corporation. 

236 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  237 

Division  of  Labor. — The  meaning  and  importance  of 
division  of  labor  is  fundamental,  if  one  is  to  understand  the 
industrial  organization  of  modern  society.  Com-  Nature : 
petition  and  cooperation  are  twin  forces  in  the  In  We- 
economic,  as  well  as  in  the  biologic,  world.  As  one  ascends 
the  scale  of  life  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  forms,  one 
observes  an  increasing  amount  of  cooperation  as  well  as 
an  increasing  complexity  of  structure.  Special  nervous, 
digestive,  and  respiratory  systems  develop  and  make 
possible  a  biological  or  organic  division  of  labor.  The 
organism  of  society  has  undergone  a  similar  evolution  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex,  accompanied  by  an  increasing 
amount  of  cooperation  and  specialization. 

The  occupations  of  primitive  man  were  so  simple  that 
there  was  little  need  for  division  of  labor.  There  was  no 
complex  problem  of  exchange,  and  each  indi- 

In  industry. 

vidual  confined  himself  to  procuring  food  for 
himself  and  his  little  group.  In  a  similar  manner,  the 
American  pioneer  was  his  own  "butcher,  baker,  and  candle- 
stick maker."  We  have  seen  the  simple  economy  of  medie- 
val Europe  and  how  each  manor  was  almost  self-sufficient. 
The  earliest  commerce  was  between  the  towns  and  the 
surrounding  country.  However,  there  had  already  been 
growing  up  a  simple  division  of  labor  based  upon  occupa- 
tions. This  can  be  seen  in  the  origin  of  last  names,  which 
were  gradually  added  to  the  given  names.  Thus,  John 
the  smith  became  John  Smith  and  William  the  miller, 
William  Miller. 

Division  of  labor  into  simple  crafts  and  occupations  is 
as  old  as  the  age  of  handicraft  manufactures.  . 

Kinds. 

The  Industrial  Revolution  developed  this  simple 

division  of  labor  into  more  intricate  forms  because  the 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


invention  of  machinery  subdivided  the  work  of  manufac- 
turing into  minute  tasks.  The  earlier  division  of  labor 
provided  for  shoemakers,  who  had  learned  the  trade  by 
apprenticeship,  and  who  could  make  by  hand  a  finished 


CUTTING  LEATHER  IN  A  SHOE  FACTORY,  LYNN 

product.  To-day,  the  making  of  shoes  is  done  by  machinery. 
Each  individual  worker  performs  but  one  simple  task,  as, 
for  illustration,  stitching  on  the  sole  and  fastening  on 
the  heel.  Thus,  a  single  pair  of  shoes  goes  through  a 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  239 

number  of  different  hands.  In  addition  to  this  division  of 
labor  between  individuals  there  is  a  division  of  labor 
between  countries,  which  is  known  as  geographical  division, 
of  labor.  The  Crusades  stimulated  a  demand  upon  the  part 
of  Europeans  for  the  spices  and  silks  of  the  East.  Com- 
merce sprang  up  in  which  the  products  of  one  land  were 
exchanged  for  those  of  another.  A  country,  like  an  indi- 
vidual, tends  to  produce  those  things  for  which  it  is  best 
fitted  by  nature. 

Division  of  labor  has  made  individuals  and  countries 
economically  specialized.  The  World  War  has  shown  man- 
kind how  interdependent  are  its  various  parts.  imp0r- 
Nations  starve  and  pestilences  rage  when  the  tance- 
healing  stream  of  commerce  is  checked,  because  afflicted 
people  are  unable  to  get  essential  food  and  drugs.  A  con- 
sideration of  the  various  articles  upon  the  lunch  table  will 
show  how  many  corners  of  the  globe  are  represented.  The 
coffee  or  chocolate  has  come  from  the  plantations  of  South 
America  and  the  tea  from  the  Orient.  At  the  same  time 
the  factory  system  has  taken  production  out  of  the  home 
and  placed  each  task  in  the  hands  of  specialists.  The 
bread  and  butter  were  therefore  probably  bought  from 
some  local  dealer  and  not  made  at  home  in  the  old-fashioned 
way.  The  canned  fruit  came  from  the  corner-grocer,  who 
purchased  it  from  the  wholesaler,  who,  in  turn,  bought  it 
from  the  cannery.  A  still  different  group  of  workers  picked 
the  fruit  while  others  were  engaged  in  the  work  of  trans- 
portation. 

A  number  of  questions  suggest  themselves  in  connection 
with  this  principle  of  division  of  labor  and  the  interchange 
of  commodities  which  it  necessitates.  Can  such  an  intricate 
system  work  smoothly  and  always  adjust  itself  quickly  to 


240  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

new  conditions?  Cannot  one  group  of  workers,  by  refus- 
ing to  cooperate,  impede  for  the  time  being  the  whole 
Value  in  industrial  system?  Again,  how  is  the  relative  im- 
exchange:  portance  of  each  factor  in  the  wealth-creating 
process  determined?  Division  of  labor  necessi- 
tates the  exchange  of  products  between  men  and  nations. 
This  process  of  exchange  brings  up  the  problem  of  value.  If 
the  shoemaker  wishes  to  exchange  some  of  his  shoes  for 
the  clothes  of  the  tailor,  upon  what  basis  shall  it  be  done? 
A  suit  of  clothes  is  worth  how  many  pairs  of  shoes?  The 
direct  system  of  exchanging  goods  for  goods  is  called  barter 
and  is  practiced  only  in  primitive  communities.  Civilized 
nations  solve  the  problem  by  using  money  as  a  standard 
of  value  and  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 

For  this  purpose  gold  has  been  used  for  many  centuries. 

It  was  formerly  weighed  out  like  any  other  commodity,  but 

is  now  minted  into  coins  of  a  standard  weight 

and  purity.    Thus  we  say,  for  example,  that  the 

suit  of  the  tailor  is  worth  forty  gold  dollars  and  shoes 

but  ten  gold  dollars.    The  suit  is  then  worth  four  times  as 

much  as  the  shoes,  and  forty  times  as  much  as  the  gold  in 

a  single  dollar.  Value  is  "the  power  of  a  good  to  command 

other  goods  in  exchange  for  itself."  Price  is  value  measured 

in  terms  of  one  special  commodity  called  money. 

Increased  division  of  labor  should  mean  more  goods  and 
cheaper  goods  because  specialization  generally  results  in 
Effects  greater  skill.  Making  homespun  cloth  was  just 
on  labor.  Qne  Q£  the  countiess  things  that  made  up  the 

working  day  of  our  pioneer  ancestors.  If  one  could  devote 
the  entire  time  to  the  making  of  clothes,  however,  one  would 
become  an  expert  tailor.  Again,  division  of  labor  makes 
it  possible  to  adapt  the  different  tasks  to  the  different  types 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  241 

of  human  ability.  It  can  take  into  account  the  physical 
and  mental  differences  in  people.  When  there  are  many 
different  occupations,  it  is  easier  to  find  one  which  is  suited 
to  one's  taste,  ability,  or  character.  Division  of  labor  also 
makes  possible  the  utilization  of  cheap,  unskilled  labor. 
When  production  was  carried  on  by  hand-tools,  instead  of 
by  machinery,  a  period  of  apprenticeship  was  necessary 
in  order  to  become  a  skilled  craftsman.  The  Industrial 
Revolution  on  the  other  hand,  created  a  demand  for  a 
relatively  large  number  of  machine  tenders.  Little  skill, 
strength,  or  intelligence  is  required,  and  unfortunately  child 
labor  is  often  in  demand.  Division  of  labor  is  the  cause  as 
well  as  the  result  of  the  use  of  machinery.  Such  a  reciprocal 
relationship  between  cause  and  effect  is  very  common  in 
social  and  economic  problems.  The  use  of  machinery  has 
increased  the  degree  of  division  of  labor,  while  this  division 
of  the  process  into  smaller  and  simpler  tasks  has  in  turn 
resulted  in  the  invention  of  machinery. 

There  are  certain  disadvantages  resulting  from  industrial 
specialization  in  spite  of  the  increased  output  and  uniform 
quality  of  the  goods  produced.  Such  critics  of  gome  dis- 
the  Industrial  Revolution  as  John  Ruskin  and  advantaees- 
William  Morris  have  declared  that  standardization  in 
industry  tends  to  destroy  the  individuality  of  both  the 
worker  and  his  work.  Minute  division  of  labor  resolves  the 
working  day  into  a  mere  continuous  repetition  of  certain 
monotonous  acts.  There  is  little  variety  in  such  a  task  as 
soldering  the  tops  on  an  endless  line  of  tin-cans,  fed  to  the 
worker  by  automatic  machinery.  The  joy  of  workmanship 
is  dulled  when  one  performsbut  a  small  task  andcannotcarry 
the  process  through  to  its  completed  stage.  Not  only  is  the 
work  monotonous,  but  it  frequently  dwarfs  the  intelligence. 


242 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


These  disadvantages  to  the  worker  are  more  than  offset 
by  the  greater  number  of  comforts  of  modern  life.  The 
The  ains  new  macn^nery  ^as  brought  its  products  within 
the  reach  of  the  worker's  pocket-book.  Because 
the  great  mechanical  inventions  make  it  possible  to  do  the 
same  amount  of  work  in  much  less  time,  the  working  day 
has  grown  steadily  shorter  since  the  Industrial  Revolution. 


A  MODERN  PRINTING  PRESS 

This  increase  in  the  amount  of  leisure  time  for  recreation 
and  education  makes  it  possible  for  the  worker  to  forget 
the  uninspiring  monotony  of  his  work.  At  the  same  time 
public  libraries,  recreation  centers,  and  modern  places  of 
amusement  enable  him  to  employ  his  leisure  time  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge,  in  improving  health,  or  seeking  entertain- 
ment. 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  243 

Large  Scale  Production.— Division  of  labor  has 
reached  its  highest  development  under  large  scale  produc- 
tion. The  Industrial  Revolution,  with  its  niustra- 
increased  use  of  capital,  drove  industry  from  the  tions* 
home  into  the  factory.  The  use  of  expensive  machinery  is 
only  profitable  when  articles  are  produced  upon  a  very 
large  scale.  Consequently,  the  increased  use  of  machinery, 
division  of  labor,  and  large  scale  production  have  all  devel- 
oped side  by  side.  The  automobile,  the  steel,  and  meat- 
packing industries,  are  good  illustrations  of  large  scale  pro- 
duction. At  first,  in  the  iron  industry,  the  ore  was  unloaded 
from  boats  on  the  Great  Lakes  by  ordinary  hand  labor;  but 
with  the  development  of  large  scale  production  the  steel 
crane  and  automatic  grab  buckets  were  employed.  Finally 
the  electric  magnet  was  used  to  swing  great  masses  of  iron 
ashore.  Andrew  Carnegie  amassed  a  colossal  fortune 
because  he  made  the  steel  industry  one  of  large  scale  pro- 
duction. Similarly  the  cheap  price  of  the  Ford  automo- 
bile is  made  possible  by  standardization  and  manufacturing 
upon  a  large  scale.  Again,  the  packing  houses  of  Chicago 
slaughter  thousands  of  cattle  a  day.  There  is  a  regular 
routine  followed  from  the  swinging  of  the  live  steer  upon 
a  travelling  carriage  to  the  pasting  of  labels  upon  the  cans 
of  corned  beef. 

Large  scale  production  makes  possible  not  only  the 
increased  use  of  machinery  and  division  of  labor,  but  also 
the  utilization  of  by-products  which  were  former-   Advan. 
ly  thrown  away.     The  packers  boast  that  the   ta«es: 

y  »•       i  •       i        By-products. 

only  part  of  the  hog  which  is  not  utilized  is  the 
squeal.     The  bristles  are  used  for  brushes,  the  fats  for 
making  glycerine  and  soaps,  and  bone  refuse  is  converted 
into  fertilizer.    The  manufacture  of  coke  from  bituminous 


244  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

coal  was  formerly  conducted  with  a  great  amount  of  waste. 
Not  only  is  the  coal  gas  now  used,  but  the  coal  tar  has 
become  very  valuable  as  the  source  of  many  chemical  dyes. 
It  is  estimated  that  hundreds  of  articles,  from  tooth  paste 
to  shoe  polish,  are  made  from  coal  tar  by-products.  The 
utilization  of  by-products  is  the  result  of  long  experimen- 
tation, the  expenses  of  which  can  only  be  met  by  large 
scale  production. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company,  in  order  to  effect  economies, 
maintains  laboratories  to  study  the  possibilities  of  the 
various  distillations  from  crude  petroleum. 
Again,  large  producers  can  effect  many  economies 
in  both  buying  and  selling.  In  every  modern  business  there 
are  certain  fixed  expenses  which  must  be  met,  whether  the 
returns  are  great  or  small.  Thus,  if  the  industry  is  one  of 
large  scale  production,  the  expense  per  unit  of  product  is 
reduced.  Buying  a  large  amount  of  raw  material  at  one 
time  tends  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production.  Many  large 
scale  industries  have  therefore  sought  to  control  the  supply 
of  raw  materials  needed  and,  in  this  way,  have  tended  to 
become  monopolistic  enterprises. 

,  There  are  certain  limitations,  however,  to  large  scale 
production.  It  is  often  objected  that  there  is  not  a  suf- 
Limita-  ficient  supply  of  requisite  managerial  ability. 
tions.  Great  captains  of  industry,  like  Andrew  Car- 

negie, are  rare.  Again,  not  all  industries  are  adapted  to 
large  scale  production.  Agriculture,  for  illustration,  seems 
to  thrive  best  under  small  scale  production.  Moreover, 
any  industry  cannot  keep  on  expanding  indefinitely.  There 
is  a  point  of  maximum  efficiency  which  varies  with  each 
industry.  To  go  beyond  this  may  mean  increased  cost 
per  unit  of  product.  Again,  there  is  the  constant  danger 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  245 

of  monopoly.  Size  may  be  sought  in  order  to  crush  com- 
petition, rather  than  to  lower  prices  through  the  economies 
of  large  scale  production. 

Large  scale  production  requires  not  only  an  enormous 
amount  of  capital,  but  also  an  efficient  organization. 
Scientific  management  often  carries  division  of 
labor  to  an  extreme.  A  personnel  department 
strives  to  put  each  employee  in  the  position  for 
which  he  or  she  is  best  fitted.  Often  examina- 
tions and  psychological  tests  are  held  to  determine  the 
applicant's  fitness.  Large  concerns  frequently  maintain 
their  own  training  schools.  Efficiency  experts  visit  indus- 
trial plants  and  large  commercial  houses  to  advise  them 
how  to  increase  production.  Conditions  are  studied  to 
determine  where  there  is  a  waste  of  effort  or  material. 
New  and  more  efficient  methods  are  then  introduced.  It 
is  not  economical  to  have  a  highly  paid  employee  doing 
work  which  could  be  done  by  cheaper  labor.  Mr.  Taylor, 
a  pioneer  in  scientific  management,  studied  workmen  who 
were  laying  bricks  in  order  to  find  out  what  were  wasted 
motions.  As  a  result  of  this  investigation,  a  standardized 
method  of  laying  bricks  was  determined  upon.  After  care- 
ful experimentation,  the  best  sized  shovel  for  excavation 
was  similarly  discovered.  The  good  results  of  scientific 
management  are  obvious  when  it  produces  greater  efficiency 
and  decreased  waste. 

It  is  objected  that  scientific  management  makes  the 
individual  a  mere  cog  in  a  great  machine.  It  is  also  main- 
tained that  the  methods  introduced  are  designed 

jjonger. 

to  get  the  utmost  effort  out  of  the  employee 
regardless  of  his  physical  well-being.     Machines  may  be 
deliberately  put  upon  a  higher  gear  in  order  to  "speed  up 


246  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

the  employee "  to  his  maximum  strength  and  speed. 
Increased  production  at  the  price  of  excessive  human 
fatigue  is  poor  economy.  The  conservation  of  human 
resources  is  even  more  vital  than  that  of  physical  resources. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  division  of  labor?    Illustrate. 

2.  Compare  division  of  labor  before  and  after  the  Industrial 
Revolution. 

3.  What  is  geographical  division  of  labor?    Illustrate  advantages. 

4.  How  does  division  of  labor  give  rise  to  the  problem  of  exchange  ? 

5.  How  does  division  of  labor  necessitate  a  problem  of  value? 

6.  What  is  value?    What  is  price? 

7.  Explain  the  advantages  of  division  of  labor. 

8.  What  are  the  objections? 

9.  What  are  its  effects  upon  labor? 

10.  Give  some  illustrations  of  large  scale  production. 

11.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  large  scale  production? 

12.  Explain  the  advantages  of  large  scale  production. 

13.  Show  its  limitations  and  dangers. 

14.  Show  the  relationship  of  capital  to  division  of  labor  and  large 
scale  production. 

15.  Explain  the  purpose  and  method  of  scientific  management. 

1 6.  What  objections  have  been  raised  to  this  system? 

17.  What  are  its  advantages? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  John  Ruskin  and  the  Industrial  Revolution. 

2.  Take  some  article  of  clothing  and  show  what  extreme  division 
of  labor  is  involved  in  its  production. 

3.  The  methods  and  organization  of  some  industry  which  illus- 
trates large  scale  production. 

4.  The  effect  of  war  upon  geographical  division  of  labor. 

5.  The  possibilities  of  scientific  management. 

6.  The  gains  of  standardization. 

7.  Capital  in  modern  production. 


Modern  Capitalistic  Production  247 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.    American  Economic  Life.    Chapter  XXVI. 
CLAY,  H.     Economics  for  the  General  Reader.     Chapters  II  and  III. 
ELY,  R.  T.    Outlines  of  Economics.    Chapter  VIII. 
MARSHALL,  WRIGHT  AND  FIELD.    Materials  for  the  Study  of  Ele- 
mentary Economics.    Chapters  V  and  VI.    Part  A. 
SEAGER,  H.  R.    Introduction  to  Economics.    Chapter  IX. 
TAUSSIG   F.  W.    Principles  of  Economics.    Chapters  III,  IV  and  V. 


CHAPTER  XX 
MODERN  CAPITALISTIC  ORGANIZATION 

I.  Earlier  forms  of  business  organization 

1.  The  single  enterpriser 

2.  The  partnership 

II.  The  corporate  form  of  business  organization 

1 .  Character  of  the  corporation 

2.  Economic  advantages 

3.  The  promotion  of  a  new  enterprise: 

a.  The  promoter 

b.  The  new  company 

4.  Organization 

5.  Nature  of  securities: 

a.  Stocks 

b.  Bonds 

6.  Social  dangers : 

a.  Political  corruption 

b.  Manipulation  of  subsidiary  companies 

c.  Financial  jugglery 

d.  Overcapitalization 

e.  Speculation 

Earlier  Forms  of  Business  Organization. — Before 
the  development  of  the  great  corporation,  industry  was 
The  sin  le  conducted  almost  entirely  by  the  individual 
enter-  business  man.  To-day  the  single  enterpriser 

continues  to  predominate  in  small  scale  produc- 
tion. Since  he  assumes  the  risk  of  the  business,  he  reaps 
the  profits  or  suffers  the  losses  of  the  undertaking.  The 

248 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  249 

enterpriser  may  be  a  great  merchant  prince,  or  the  humble 
boot-black  who  shines  his  shoes;  but  large  scale  production 
generally  assumes  the  corporate  form.  The  enterpriser 
brings  together  land,  labor,  and  capital,  the  three  funda- 
mental factors  in  production.  Although  he  may  lease 
some  land  and  borrow  some  money,  a  portion  of  the  capital 
must  be  his  own.  Although  he  must  hire  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  employees  to  run  the  business,  the  labor  of  managing 
the  enterprise  is  his  own.  Upon  his  shoulders  falls  squarely 
the  responsibility  of  the  undertaking.  Not  only  must  the 
successful  enterpriser  possess  energy  and  foresight,  but  he 
must  be  a  good  judge  of  men  and  conditions  in  order  to 
foresee  prices  and  the  changing  demands  of  a  fickle  public. 
Especially  important  qualities  are  organizing  ability  and 
leadership  which  can  inspire  loyalty  and  confidence.  The 
battle  of  economic  competition  develops  industrial  generals 
who  have  frequently  risen  from  the  ranks.  Conditions  in 
America  seem  to  have  been  favorable  for  developing  the 
qualities  of  the  successful  enterpriser.  Asia  has  given  to 
the  world  great  religious  teachers,  Europe  men  of  letters 
and  science,  but  America  the  great  captains  of  industry. 

A  partnership  is  an  association  of  two  or  more  indi- 
viduals, who  are  jointly  responsible  for  their  enterprise. 
Each  partner  is  liable  for  all  the  obligations  of  The  part- 
the  firm  and  must  abide  by  a  contract  signed  by  : 
any  other  partner.  Recently  there  has  been  a  tendency 
toward  what  are  known  as  limited  liability  partnerships. 
Although  there  is  a  disadvantage  in  joint  responsibility, 
more  capital  can  be  secured  by  several  individuals  than  by 
any  one  of  them  singly.  Again,  this  business  arrangement 
may  afford  to  each  partner  an  opportunity  to  specialize  in 
the  kind  of  work  for  which  he  is  best  fitted.  Partnerships 


250  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

are  well  adapted  to  enterprises  requiring  comparatively 
little  capital  and  depending  chiefly  upon  skill  and  talent. 
The  profession  of  law,  for  example,  affords  numerous 
illustrations  of  this  form  of  association.  Another  illustra- 
tion is  retailing  business,  depending  to  a  large  degree  upon 
personality. 

The  Corporate  Form  of  Business  Organization. 
Large  scale  production  requires  an  enormous  amount  of 
Character  capita^  to  supply  which  the  modern  corpora- 
of  the  tion  has  come  into  existence.  A  corporation  is 

corporation.  ........ 

an  association  of  a  great  number  of  individuals 
known  as  stockholders,  who  are  financially  liable  only  to 
the  value  of  the  amount  of  stock  held  individually.  It  is 
a  fictitious  person  before  the  law,  that  is,  it  can  sue  or  be 
sued,  incur  debts,  make  contracts,  and  in  short  do  anything 
which  an  ordinary  individual  can  do.  The  corporation 
derives  its  right  to  exist  from  a  state  charter,  which  when 
granted  in  one  commonwealth  must  be  recognized  in  all 
the  others.  In  the  past,  because  of  lenient  regulations, 
New  Jersey  was  sought  by  many  associations  desiring  to 
incorporate.  Recently,  however,  this  commonwealth 
together  with  most  of  the  other  states,  have  added  con- 
stitutional or  statute  restrictions  concerning  the  granting 
of  franchises  to  new  companies.  Many  commonwealths 
have  passed  "blue  sky  laws"  to  protect  the  public  by 
restricting  the  activity  and  preventing  the  incorporation  of 
financially  unsound  organizations. 

The  corporation  enjoys  a  number  of  advantages  over  the 
other  forms  of  business  organization.  This  artificial  crea- 

Economic  ture  has  a  perpetual  existence,  if  its  life  is  not 
advantages.  limited  by  the  time  clause  in  the  franchise. 

Stockholders  may  die  and  officers  resign,  but  the  corpora- 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  251 

tion  may  go  on  forever.  Its  chief  advantage  lies  in  its 
ability  to  get  together  an  enormous  mass  of  capital,  which 
makes  possible  large  scale  production.  The  fund  for  such 
enormous  organizations  as  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  and 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  must  be  obtained  col- 
lectively. Corporate  stock  can  generally  be  purchased  in 
large  or  small  amounts  to  fit  the  needs  of  the  individual 
investor.  The  fact  of  limited  liability  gives  the  corpora- 
tion an  advantage  over  the  partnership.  If  the  corporation 
fails,  the  individual  stockholders  cannot  be  called  upon  to 
make  good  its  losses  out  of  their  own  pockets.  National 
bank  stockholders,  however,  have  a  double  liability,  that 
is,  they  are  responsible  for  twice  the  value  of  the  stock 
which  they  hold.  The  purpose  of  this  unusual  arrange- 
ment is  to  protect  the  depositors  in  a  national  bank. 
Another  advantage  of  the  corporate  form  of  business 
organization  is  the  great  flexibility  of  management. 
Reorganization  is  possible  by  the  election  of  a  new  set  of 
officers  or  another  board  of  directors.  Experts  can  also 
be  obtained  for  the  management  of  the  various  depart- 
ments by  the  payment  of  large  salaries. 

New  corporations  .are  continually  being  organized  as 
new  enterprises  are  launched.     The  promoter  is  the  man 
who    organizes    and    directs    combinations    of    Thepro_ 
capital.     He  secures  funds  for  the  development   J1^11  of 
of  our  natural  resources.     Let  us  take  as  our    enterprise: 

..  ..  The  promoter. 

illustration  the  formation  of  an  oil  company. 
The  professional  promoter  hears  that  oil  has  been  struck 
in  a  new  section  of  the  country.  He  may  go  there  only  to 
discover  that  the  report  of  the  oil  possibilities  has  been 
much  exaggerated.  On  the  other  hand,  the  field  may 
seem  so  promising  that  the  promoter  may  decide  in  favor 


252  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

of  the  venture.  He  may  have  sufficient  funds  of  his  own 
for  the  early  steps,  or  he  may  require  the  assistance  of  other 
and  larger  financiers.  Geological  experts  and  mining 
engineers  are  employed  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  best 
probable  locations  for  the  prospective  wells.  The  pro- 
moter then  buys  options  upon  some  of  these  sites,  that  is, 
the  right  to  purchase  the  land  for  a  certain  sum  at  the 
expiration  of  a  given  time.  In  the  meantime  he  has  secured 
all  the  information  possible  concerning  the  new  prospect. 
More  funds  are  now  needed,  and  the  promoter  gathers 
around  himself  a  small  group  of  financiers.  If  he  is  unable 
to  convince  them  of  the  possibilities  of  the  oil  fields,  the 
proposition  is  dropped  for  lack  of  funds.  The  promoter 
bears  the  burden  of  the  initial  expenses. 

If  he  is  successful  in  convincing  the  bankers  of  the  ulti- 
mate success  of  the  undertaking,  a  new  company  is  incor- 
Thenew  porated  by  securing  a  charter  from  the  state. 
company.  The  stock  Qf  the  new  company  may  be  directly 

subscribed  by  a  number  of  wealthy  investors.  More 
likely,  however,  the  issue  of  securities  is  " floated"  by 
some  banking  or  bonding  house.  For  a  certain  bonus  such 
financial  institutions  will  underwrite  an  entire  issue,  that 
is,  guarantee  its  sale  to  the  general  investing  public.  The 
salesmen  of  the  new  securities  then  sell  the  stocks  or  bonds 
to  individuals  and  corporations  throughout  the  country. 
The  promoter  of  a  new  enterprise  generally  receives  as 
his  reward  a  generous  slice  of  the  securities. 

The   stockholders   of  a   corporation   are   the   ultimate 

source  of  its  authority.     This  means  frequently,  however, 

Organi-         tne  mere  election  of  a  board  of  directors,  who 

manage  the  undertaking  supposedly  in  the  best 

interests  of  the  stockholders.     Each  stockholder  has  as 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  253 

many  votes  as  he  has  shares  of  stock,  and  the  balloting  is 
generally  done  by  proxy.  Only  too  frequently  the  small 
holder  does  not  trouble  himself  to  mail  to  the  company 
his  choice  of  officers.  As  long  as  the  dividend  is  paid  regu- 
larly, he  cares  little  about  the  management  of  the  corpora- 
tion. The  policy  of  the  corporation  is  thus  determined 
by  the  directors,  who  are  often  the  large  share  holders. 
They  decide  what  rate  of  dividend  shall  be  paid,  whether 
the  capitalization  shall  be  increased,  and  if  so,  whether  a 
stock  or  bond  issue  shall  be  resorted  to.  The  board  of 
directors  may  elect  an  executive  committee  where  the 
corporate  responsibility  is  still  further  centralized.  Other 
necessary  committees  may  be  elected  or  appointed.  The 
administrative  work  is  left  to  salaried  officials  who  may 
or  may  not  be  officers  of  the  corporation.  For  illustra- 
tion, the  president  of  a  company  may  also  be  the  super- 
intendent of  the  plant,  and  each  of  the  vice  presidents 
may  be  in  charge  of  a  department.  The  organization  of 
a  corporation  is  strongly  influenced  by  the  kind  of  industry 
represented.  In  general  there  are  three  fundamental 
departments;  namely,  the  producing,  the  selling,  and  the 
administrative  departments.  Each  of  these  departments 
has  its  own  subdivisions  and  managers. 

Securities,  such  as  stocks  and  bonds,  merely  represent 
the  economic  wealth  which  lies  behind  them.    They  are 
paper  certificates  of  the  ownership  of  economic   Nattu.e  of 
wealth,  such  as  land  and  capital.    When  we  say   ^cc^ties: 
that  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  has  a 
capitalization  of  two  billion  dollars,  it  should  mean  that 
this  company  has  two  billion  dollars  worth  of  land,  build- 
ings, machinery,  etc.     Stocks  and  bonds  can  be  broken  up 
into  convenient  divisions  more  easily  than  the  real  wealth 


254  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

represented.  If  Mr.  Blank  owns  a  thousand  dollars'  worth 
of  stock,  it  merely  means  that  he  owns  that  fraction  of  the 
company's  real  wealth.  A  thousand-dollar  bond  would 
make  him  a  creditor  of  the  company  to  that  extent.  The 
stockholders  are  members  of  the  corporation  and  are  often 
small  inactive  enterprisers.  The  dividend  paid  upon  their 
stock  represents  their  share  of  the  fluctuating  returns  of  the 
corporation.  The  stock  itself  represents  the  wealth 
invested  in  the  corporation. 

A  bond  holder  is  a  creditor  of  the  company  and  not 
necessarily  a  member  of  the  corporation.  Consequently, 
he  may  have  no  voice  in  its  internal  manage- 
ment. He  receives  interest  upon  his  loan  at 
definite  times  and  at  a  fixed  rate  of  interest.  When  the 
time  of  the  loan  expires,  the  owner  receives  the  face  value 
of  the  bond.  Bond  obligations  must  be  met  before  a 
dividend  is  declared.  If  a  corporation  cannot  pay  the 
interest  upon  its  debts  it  is  insolvent.  Stock  may  be 
divided  into  common  and  preferred,  and  the  earnings  of 
the  latter  group  of  securities  may  be  fairly  constant  like 
the  interest  upon  bonds.  The  elements  of  risk  and  profits 
tend  to  balance  each  other,  for  the  investor  cannot  get 
maximum  safety  and  maximum  profit.  Speculative  stocks 
will  pay  high  dividends  because  of  the  risk  involved.  The 
comparatively  low  rate  of  interest  on  municipal  and  gov- 
ernment bonds  is  due  to  their  high  degree  of  security, 
which  makes  them  attractive  to  conservative  investors. 

Some  of  the  very  advantages  of  the  corporate  form  of 
business  organization  indicate  the  dangerous  possibilities. 
Limited  liability  and  flexibility  of  management  result  in 
indirect  and  absentee  ownership.  For  this  reason  a  great 
corporation  is  said  to  possess  no  soul.  Real,  not  fictitious, 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  255 

persons  feel  a  sense  of  responsibility.    In  the  story  of  Mrs. 
Shelley,  Frankenstein  proved  a  dangerous  monster  after 
his  creation.    The  very  size  of  the  modern  cor- 
poration makes  it  a  possibility  for  evil  as  well  as    dangers: 
good.     Its  vast  funds  may  be  used  for  political   Politic^ 

corruption. 

corruption,  whereby  undue  power  is  wielded  and 
legislation  inimical  to  social  welfare  is  enacted.    Internal 
politics  may  be  played  within  the  corporation,  while  high- 
salaried  sinecures  are  not  unknown. 

Furthermore,  a  few  influential  members  may  organize 
subsidiary  companies  and  concentrate  in  them  a  portion  of 
the  company's  profits.     For  illustration,  a  few   subsidiary 
directors  of  a  large  automobile  company  may  com^ames- 
organize  an  independent  company  to  build  automobile 
bodies.    By  charging  an  exorbitant  price  for  these  bodies, 
the  small  subsidiary  company  may  make  large  profits  at 
the  expense  of  the  original  corporation. 

Officers  may  sometimes  pay  themselves  high  salaries  at 
the  expense  of  dividends  or  to  conceal  the  high  profits. 
Another  abuse  is  connected  with  the  borrowing  Financial 
power  of  the  corporation.  Bond  issues  may  be  **&**• 
floated  which  are  far  in  excess  of  what  the  earnings  of  the 
company  warrant.  Corporations  can  also  be  forced  into 
bankruptcy  and  then  reorganized.  A  similar  object  may 
be  accomplished  by  giving  out  false  reports  to  discourage 
the  stockholders,  who  sell  out  cheaply  and  leave  the  pro- 
moter and  his  friends  in  control.  After  this  purpose  has 
been  accomplished,  the  price  of  the  securities  may  then 
rise  to  their  proper  value. 

The  value  of  the  stocks  and  bonds  of  a  corporation  should 
equal  its  real  wealth.  Such  is  not  always  the  case.  The 
franchise,  certain  privileges  granted  the  company,  and 


256  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

various  intangible  assets  are  sometimes  capitalized,  that  is, 
given  a  monetary  value,  and  stock  issued  to  that  amount. 
Overcapitai-  Up  to  a  certain  extent  this  is  legitimate,  for 
many  of  these  things  have  proper  commer- 
cial value.  Great  evils,  however,  result  when  the  privileges 
are  capitalized  at  an  exorbitant  figure.  This  has  been 
illustrated  in  the  consolidation  of  street  car  companies. 
Again,  stock  has  sometimes  been  issued  which  has  had  no 
physical  basis  at  all.  Promoters  have  been  given  large 
shares  of  stocks  which  have  no  paid-in  value.  Such  a  pro- 
cess is  known  as  overcapitalization  or  stock  watering.  The 
more  a  stock  is  diluted  the  less  becomes  the  value  of  each 
share.  All  the  stockholders  may  suffer  for  the  benefit  of 
a  few.  Sometimes  all  the  stockholders  may  receive  a  grant 
of  stock.  If  this  is  equal  in  value  to,  and  in  lieu  of,  a  cash 
dividend,  the  process  is  legitimate.  It  merely  means  that 
the  corporation  is  saving  and  expanding.  Often,  however, 
stock  dividends  are  largely  water.  Overcapitalization  may 
be  sought  to  conceal  high  profits.  If  a  dividend  of  ten  dol- 
lars is  paid  upon  a  share  of  stock  valued  at  a  hundred  dollars 
the  profit  is  ten  per  cent.  If  the  capitalization  is  doubled, 
it  now  means  ten  dollars  upon  every  two  hundred  and  thus 
the  corporation  shows  a  profit  of  but  five  per  cent.  It  is 
easier  to  add  water  to  stock  than  to  squeeze  it  out,  for  those 
who  profited  by  the  process  of  overcapitalization  may  have 
sold  the  stock  later  to  legitimate  investors.  Numerous 
laws  have  been  passed  attempting  to  restrict  this  evil  of 
overcapitalization. 

The  ease  with  which  corporate  securities  can  be  bought 
and  sold  in  almost  any  denominations  makes  speculation 
possible.  Stock  brokers  are  middlemen  who  buy  and  sell 
securities  for  their  customers.  The  stock  exchange  is  the 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  257 

market  in  which  they  operate.  The  most  important  stocks 
and  bonds  are  listed  on  the  New  York  Exchange  where  the 
business  is  largely  concentrated .  The  daily  papers 
record  the  closing  prices  obtained  there  for  the  Spea 
chief  securities.  The  more  conservative  investment  securi- 
ties fluctuate  but  slightly.  Fluctuating  securities,  however, 
afford  greater  possibility  for  gain  or  loss  and  are  known  as 
speculative  stocks.  Speculators  watch  the  stock  market  in 
order  to  buy  stocks  when  they  are  low,  hold  them  for  a  rise 
in  value,  and  then  sell  them  for  a  profit.  Fortunes  have 
been  made  and  lost  on  the  floor  of  the  stock  exchange.  If 
the  security  has  been  actually  bought,  such  speculation  can 
hardly  be  called  gambling.  Frequently,  however,  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  money  for  the  purchase  is  advanced 
by  the  buyer.  This  practice  is  called  buying  on  margin.  A 
relatively  small  sum  will  give  a  claim  upon  a  considerable 
number  of  shares.  If  the  stock  rises  in  value,  the  gain  is 
much  greater  than  if  a  small  number  of  shares  had  been 
bought  outright.  If  the  stock  falls  in  value,  the  loss  is 
equally  great  and  may  wipe  out  the  entire  margin.  The 
speculator  must  either  put  up  more  margin  or  be  sold  out. 
The  broker,  who  carries  the  stock  for  his  customer,  charges 
him  interest  upon  the  difference  between  his  margin  and 
the  entire  value  of  the  security.  By  demanding  a  sufficient 
margin,  he  usually  protects  himself  against  a  fall  in  the 
value  of  the  security.  Selling  short  is  the  reverse  of  buying 
on  margin.  Here  the  speculation  is  based  on  a  fall  in  the 
market  value,  and  the  speculator  sells  for  future  delivery 
what  he  really  does  not  possess.  Here  a  rise  in  value  means 
the  loss  of  the  margin.  It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line 
legally  between  legitimate  speculation  and  gambling.  How- 
ever, laws  have  been  passed  against  some  of  the  worst 


258  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

evils  of  the  system,  such  as  the  "bucket  shop,"  which  tempts 
the  small  speculator  to  gamble  on  the  stock  market. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Who  is  the  enterpriser  and  what  are  his  economic  functions? 

2.  Give   some   qualities   and   characteristics   of   the   successful 
enterpriser. 

3.  Explain  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  partnership. 

4.  Define  a  corporation.     Give  its  characteristics. 

5.  What  advantages  does  the  corporate  form  of  business  organi- 
zation possess? 

6.  Outline  the  steps  by  which  a  new  corporation  would  be  formed. 

7.  Sketch  the  usual  form  of  organization. 

8.  Explain  the  differences  between  stocks  and  bonds. 

9.  Enumerate  some  of  the  possibilities  for  abuse  under  the  cor- 
porate form  of  business  organization. 

10.  Show  the  dangers  of  subsidiary  companies. 

1 1 .  Explain  what  is  meant  by  stock  watering. 

12.  How  and  why  does  it  happen? 

13.  Explain  some  other  forms  of  financial  jugglery. 

14.  Why  is  overcapitalization  a  pernicious  practice? 

15.  What  can  be  done  by  the  state  to  prevent  it? 

1 6.  Differentiate  between  investment,  speculation,  and  gambling. 

17.  What  is  buying  on  margin? 

18.  What  is  "selling  short"? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Great  American  captains  of  industry. 

2.  The  charter  of  some  industrial  corporation,  real  or  hypo- 
thetical. 

3.  The  corporation,  a  miniature  society. 

4.  The  detailed  organization  of  some  industrial  corporation  with 
which  you  are  familiar. 

5.  The  work  of  the  stock  exchange. 

6.  Brokers  and  the  marketing  of  securities. 

7.  Sound  methods  of  capitalization. 

8.  Recent  cases  of  overcapitalization. 


Modern  Capitalistic  Organization  259 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.     American  Economic  Life.     Chapters  XXVII  and 

XXXVII. 

CLAY,  H.    Economics  for  General  Reader.     Chapters  IV  and  V. 
CLEVELAND,  F.  A.    First  Lessons  in  Finance. 
ELY,  R.  T.     Outlines  of  Economics.     Chapter  XIII. 
HAMILTON,    W.    H.     Current    Economic    Problems.    Chapter    IV. 

Parts  F  and  G. 
MARSHALL,  WRIGHT  AND  FIELDS.    Materials  for  Study  of  Elementary 

Economics.     Chapter  VI.     PartB. 
MEADE,  E.  S.     Corporation  Finance;  Trust  Finance. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  REGULATION  OF  MONOPOLY 

I.  Economic  aspects  of  monopoly 

1.  Definition 

2.  Influence  of  demand 

3.  Cost  of  production 

4.  Limitations  on  monopoly 
II.  Kinds  of  monopoly 

1.  Legal 

2.  Natural 

3.  Artificial: 

a.  Labor 

b.  Capital 

III.  The  evolution  of  the  trust 

1.  Pooling 

2.  Trustees 

3.  The  holding  company 
IV.  Social  results 

1.  Advantages 

2.  Disadvantages 
V.  Political  aspects 

1.  Possible  public  policies 

2.  History  of  regulation : 

a.  Sherman  Anti-trust  Law 

b.  Clayton  Act 

c.  Federal  Trade  Commission 

d.  Supreme  Court  decisions 

3.  Other  possibilities 

260 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  261 

Economic  Aspects  of  Monopoly. — A  monopoly  exists 
when  there  is  sufficient  control  over  the  supply  of  a  com- 
modity, or  service,  to  fix  its  price.  The  real 
test  of  monopoly  is  not  mere  size,  but  this  price- 
determining  power.  Thus,  the  village  grocer  may  be  a 
monopolist,  if  he  is  the  only  one  in  town  and  circumstances 
make  outside  buying  impossible.  Monopoly  price  is  that 
price  at  which  the  greatest  profit  accrues  to  the  monopoly. 
A  high  price  can  only  be  maintained  by  restricting  or  con- 
trolling the  output.  Hence  the  monopoly  seeks  to  control 
and  regulate  the  supply. 

The  monopoly  price  may  be  a  high  price,  but  it  is  not  so 
necessarily.  Competitive  prices  are  said  to  be  determined 
by  the  so-called  law  of  supply  and  demand,  influence 
The  competitive  price  tends  to  increase  with  of  demand- 
the  demand  for  a  good,  and  to  decrease  with  its  supply. 
The  monopolist  must  study  the  demand  for  his  article, 
and  then  regulate  its  supply  and  price  accordingly. 
Demand  for  a  good  is  said  to  be  elastic  when  its  sale 
responds  quickly  to  any  change  in  price.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  demand  is  inelastic  when  fluctuations  in  the 
price  of  the  commodity  make  comparatively  little  dif- 
ference in  the  amount  sold.  The  demand  for  necessities 
is  more  inelastic  than  the  demand  for  comforts  and  lux- 
uries. The  former  must  be  had  at  any  price.  If  the 
demand  for  the  article  produced  is  very  elastic,  an  increase 
in  the  price  may  cause  the  sale  to  fall  off  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  profits  of  the  monopoly  will  suffer.  More  sales 
at  a  lower  price  may  result  in  greater  gains.  When  the 
demand  is  inelastic,  as  in  the  case  of  necessities,  the  power 
and  danger  of  monopoly  are  increased. 

Conditions  of  production  must  also  be  considered.     The 


262  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

monopolist  must  find  whether  the  production  of  his  good 
follows  the  principle  of  increasing  or  decreasing  cost,  that 
Cost  of  is>  whether  the  cost  per  unit  goes  up  or  down  as 
production.  ^  voiume  of  output  increases.  If  the  indus- 
try is  one  which  enjoys  the  economies  of  large  scale  pro- 
duction, it  may  be  good  business  to  keep  the  price  low. 
It  may  cost  so  much  less  per  unit  to  produce  a  larger  quan- 
tity than  a  smaller  quantity,  that  greater  profits  may  be 
made  with  larger  sales  at  a  lower  price. 

An  artificial  limitation  upon  monopoly  is  governmental 

interference.    The  two  natural  limitations  are  the  forces 

of   substitution  and  competition.     If  the  price 

Limitations 

on  rises  too  high,  the  consumer  may  cease  his  con- 

monopoly.  .  .       . 

sumption  of  that  particular  good  and  substi- 
tute another  in  its  place.  Thus,  if  meat  becomes  exorbi- 
tant in  price,  the  thrifty  housewife  will  be  tempted  to  buy 
more  fish  and  eggs.  Substitution  is  difficult,  however, 
with  the  cheapest  necessities  of  life,  such  as  salt  or  matches. 
A  rising  monopoly  price  may  sometimes  stimulate  action 
upon  the  part  of  the  producer,  as  well  as  upon  the  part 
of  the  consumer.  Competition  may  be  revived.  The 
history  of  the  sugar  trust  illustrates  how  a  rise  in  price 
made  it  possible  for  independent  producers  to  enter  the 
market.  A  later  combination  secured  another  temporary 
monopoly,  and  the  price  was  again  raised.  Other  inde- 
pendent concerns,  however,  entered  the  field  and  the  price 
was  lowered.  In  the  background  stands  the  State,  when- 
ever governmental  interference  becomes  necessary.  The 
power  to  regulate  price  has  been  called  "the  gun  behind 
the  door." 

Kinds  of  Monopoly. — Numerous  classifications  of  mon- 
opolies have  been  attempted,  but  all  seem  to  overlap. 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  263 

Legal  monopolies  are  those  based  upon  law  or  govern- 
mental privilege.     The  production  of  tobacco  and  matches 
in  France  and  salt  in  Saxony  illustrates  go  vern- 
mental  monopolies.   The  post  office  in  the  United 
States  is  a  legal  public  monopoly.     Even  where  public 
utilities  are  not  owned  and  operated  by  the  government, 
there  may  be  exclusive  terms  in  their  franchises  which 
make  them  legal  monopolies.     Patents  and  copyrights  are 
illustrations  of  private  legal  monopolies. 

Natural  monopolies  are  those  of  location  or  organiza- 
tion. Where  the  supply  of  a  commodity  is  fixed,  it  is 
fairly  easy  to  establish  a  monopoly.  The  scarce 

,    ,.  ,     Natural. 

and  rather  localized  sources  of  diamonds  well 
illustrate  this  point.  Again,  monopoly  of  supply  may  be 
secured  by  obtaining  control  of  the  anthracite  mines. 
Many  public  utilities  illustrate  not  only  legal  monopolies, 
but  also  natural  monopolies  of  organization.  Competition 
is  wasteful  when  there  is  a  large  "  overhead  expense,"  that 
is,  fixed  costs  which  must  be  met  irrespective  of  the  busi- 
ness done.  There  is  a  tendency  toward  monopoly  in  many 
industries  of  large  scale  production.  This  is  especially 
true  when  they  operate  under  the  principle  of  increasing 
returns,  that  is,  when  profits  increase  relatively  faster  than 
the  business.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  railroads,  where 
a  relatively  large  proportion  of  the  freight  charges  goes  for 
fixed  expenses  of  maintenance,  which  are  rather  inde- 
pendent of  the  volume  of  business  done. 

The  third  group  may  be  called  artificial  monopolies. 
Although  monopolies  of  organization,  they  are  not  in  one 
sense  natural  monopolies.     They  merely  repre-    Artificial: 
sent  the  artificial  organization  of  either  labor   Labor- 
or  capital.      A  labor  union,  for  example,  secures  a  mon- 


264  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

opoly  position  if  its  membership  includes  practically  all 
the  workmen  of  a  given  trade  or  craft.  Some  unions  have 
striven  to  limit  the  membership  in  the  trade  by  a  rigorous 
apprenticeship.  Such  a  practice  may  have  its  justification, 
but  the  logical  outcome  of  organization  is  monopoly.  The 
closed  shop  is  one  in  which  only  union  men  are  employed 
and  represents,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  monopoly  of  labor. 

The  trust  may  become  an  artificial,  capitalistic  monopoly. 

Although  a  monopoly  of  organization,  it  is  not  a  natural 

monopoly  unless  it  illustrates  the  principle  of 

Capital. 

increasing  returns.  The  secret  of  the  power  of 
the  trust  is  its  bargaining  strength,  as  much  as  its  pro- 
ducing efficiency.  If  monopoly  is  necessary  to  secure  the 
gains  of  large  scale  production,  the  industry  may  be  termed 
a  natural  monopoly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  become 
a  monopoly  merely  by  the  process  of  capitalistic  combina- 
tion, the  monopoly  is  artificial.  From  an  economic  point 
of  view,  it  is  a  colossus  with  feet  of  clay.  Economists  dis- 
tinguish between  two  methods  of  combination,  the  ver- 
tical and  the  horizontal.  Vertical  combination  is  an 
attempt  to  get  control  of  an  industry  through  each  of  its 
different  stages.  Control  begins  with  the  raw  materials 
and  ends  with  each  of  the  finished  products.  Vertical 
combination  may,  however,  not  be  a  monopoly  because 
there  may  be  powerful  independent  producers.  But  a 
tendency  toward  monopoly  is  sure  to  manifest  itself. 
Horizontal  combination  is  an  attempt  to  combine  all  the 
producers  of  a  given  article  in  a  given  stage  of  production, 
as,  for  illustration,  all  the  weavers  of  woolen  cloth  or  all 
the  rollers  of  steel. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Trust.— The  trust  is  the  corpo- 
ration of  corporations.     Such  a  superorganization  naturally 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  265 

developed  through  a  gradual  process  of  combination.  The 
first  stage  in  its  development  was  known  as  pooling  and 
originated  with  the  railroads.  Agreements 
were  made  between  independent  corporations 
to  cease  the  competition  that  was  ruining  their  profits. 
Prices  were  fixed,  and  the  market  divided  by  some  sort  of 
''gentlemen's  agreement."  It  was  found  difficult  in  many 
cases  to  carry  out  such  an  agreement,  because  some  con- 
cerns would  secretly  undercut  the  price.  No  contract  had 
been  made  and  the  courts  could  not  be  appealed  to  for  help. 
Indeed,  the  law  forbade  this  very  practice  of  price-fixing. 
The  pool  was  so  called  because  frequently  the  receipts  of  the 
various  companies  were  put  into  a  common  fund,  to  be 
later  divided  according  to  some  prearranged  apportion- 
ment. 

The  second  stage  has  given  to  the  trusts  their  present 
name.     The  various  corporations,  which  sought  to  elimi- 
nate competition  among  themselves,  agreed  to 
turn  over  their  stock  to  a  board  of  trustees.    This 
board  gave  back  in  exchange  trust  certificates.     It  could 
regulate  production  and  fix  price  because  it  held  a  majority 
of  the  stock  in  all  the  companies.     The  second  stage  was 
short-lived,  because  the  courts  declared  illegal  the  practice 
of  trusteeship. 

The  final  outcome  of  this  development  is  the  holding 
company.  Under  this  plan  each  company  maintains  a 
separate  legal  existence,  but  there  is  formed  The  holding 
another  corporation  which  is  empowered  to  hold  c 
stock  in  the  other  companies.  This  corporation  is  known 
as  the  holding  company  and  secures  unity  of  action,  because 
it  can  command  a  majority  of  votes  in  each  of  the  con- 
stituent companies.  Practically  the  same  purpose  of  com- 


266  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

modity  control  and  price  regulation  can  be  obtained  under 
this  method  as  under  the  former  illegal  method  of  trustee- 
ship. 

Social  Results. — If  the  trust  organization  is  a  natural 
monopoly  of  increasing  returns,  it  is  possible  for  certain 
Advan-  advantages  to  follow  from  it.  The  economies 
tages.  Q£  jarge  scaje  production  may  be  reflected  in  a 

lower  price.  Monopoly  may  avoid  the  wastes  of  com- 
petition and  render  superior  service.  In  a  certain  small 
section  of  a  city,  for  example,  it  was  found  that  over  a 
dozen  independent  milk  dealers  covered  the  same  route 
early  each  morning  to  the  increasing  cost  of  the  sleeping 
consumers.  Combination,  by  effecting  economies,  could 
result  in  lower  prices.  It  is  also  claimed  that  monopoly 
creates  a  more  stable  market,  for  here  there  is  little  mis- 
directed production.  Under  free  competition,  the  price 
fluctuates  constantly  according  to  conditions  of  supply 
and  demand,  whereas  monopoly  seeks  to  study  demand 
and  regulate  supply  accordingly.  The  natural  effect  of 
this  process  is  to  stabilize  prices. 

Monopoly  price  may  be  steadier  than  competitive  price, 
but  it  is  frequently  higher.  Society  has  not  always  received 
Disadvan-  its  share  of  the  economies  of  large  scale  produc- 
tion in  the  form  of  lower  prices.  On  the  con- 
trary, monopolies  have  made  individual  fortunes  and 
increased  the  inequality  of  incomes.  A  one-cent  advance 
in  the  price  of  some  essential  may  mean  thousands  of 
dollars  additional  profit  to  the  corporation.  Furthermore, 
the  seeking  of  favorable  legislation  or  the  obstruction  of 
restrictive  legislation  by  wealthy  corporations  has  some- 
times had  a  corrupting  influence  upon  politics.  Their 
ruthless  methods  toward  smaller  competitors,  however, 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  267 

have  been  the  most  frequent  objections  to  monopolies. 
Often  the  independent  concern  has  been  deliberately  forced 
out  of  business.  A  great  combination  has  been  able  to 
keep  prices  lower,  temporarily,  in  the  section  where  com- 
petition exists,  until  the  independent  producer  is  forced 
to  join  the  combination  or  to  go  out  of  business.  Often 
the  economic  struggle  for  existence  has  been  as  keen  as 
that  among  the  lower  forms  of  life  where  the  larger  animals 
devour  the  smaller. 

Political  Aspects. — There  are  four  courses  open  to 
society  in  dealing  with  monopoly.  The  first  is  that  of 
"laissez  faire"  or  " hands  off."  The  earlier 

Possible 

economists  assumed  a  state  of  free  competition   public 

policies. 

which  they  made  the  center  of  their  economic 
systems.  But  neither  the  assumption  of  perfect  competi- 
tion nor  the  policy  of  " laissez  faire"  can  be  adopted  to-day. 
A  second  policy  which  has  been  tried  is  that  of  dissolution. 
Here  the  results  have  been  far  from  satisfactory,  because, 
while  the  corporation  is  legally  broken  up,  the  monopoly 
continues  under  some  other  form.  Some  of  the  devices 
which  make  this  possible  have  already  been  described. 
The  process  of  " trust  busting"  has  been  compared  to  an 
attempt  to  unscramble  scrambled  eggs.  The  third  alter- 
native open  to  society  is  the  policy  of  public  ownership 
and  operation.  The  extension  of  this  idea  to  all  forms  of 
industry  would  bring  us  face  to  face  with  socialism.  The 
only  other  alternative  in  dealing  with  problems  of  monopoly 
is  the  policy  of  government  regulation  of  industrial  com- 
binations. 

The  history  of  government  regulation  of  industry  in 
this  country  is  interesting.  The  movement  first  began 
with  the  individual  states,  some  of  which  passed  laws  so 


268  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

drastic  that  they  were  declared  unconstitutional  by  the 
courts.  Moreover,  the  federal  government  alone  has  control 
History  of  °ver  interstate  commerce,  and  it  was  seen  that 
regulation:  Qnjv  ^^  gOvernmental  action  could  cope  with 
Law.  big  business  which  operated  in  all  the  individual 

states.  Consequently,  the  Sherman  Anti-trust  Law  was 
passed  in  1890.  This  act  made  illegal  "every  contract, 
combination  in  the  form  of  trust  or  otherwise,  or  con- 
spiracy, in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce  among  the  sev- 
eral states,  or  with  foreign  nations."  It  was  made  crim- 
inal to  "  monopolize,  or  attempt*  to  monopolize,  any  part 
of  the  trade  or  commerce  among  the  several  states,  or 
with  foreign  nations."  The  attempted  strength  of  this 
act  was  its  very  weakness.  The  Sherman  Anti-trust  Law 
could  hardly  be  called  successful  because  of  its  sweeping 
indictments  against  all  combinations.  Railroad  combina- 
tions and  labor  unions  alike  would  come  under  its  con- 
demnation. The  courts  have,  therefore,  found  it  difficult 
to  enforce  this  law. 

The  Clayton  Act,  passed  in  1914,  made  more  definite 
the  policy  of  regulation.  It  modifies  and  makes  clearer  the 
Clayton  Act  terms  °*  ^e  origmal  Sherman  Act,  specifically 
exempting  labor  unions.  Again,  it  prohibits 
one  corporation  from  holding  stock  in  another  corporation 
for  the  purpose  of  lessening  competition.  A  similar  aim 
is  sought  in  the  provisions  which  oppose  interlocking  direc- 
torates. It  is  illegal,  under  certain  circumstances,  for  an 
individual  to  be  a  director  in  a  number  of  large  corpor- 
ations. Financial  and  industrial  centralization  is  opposed. 

Congress  also  established  in  1914  the  Federal  Trade  Com- 
mission. This  body  consists  of  five  members  appointed  by 
the  President.  So  far,  it  is  largely  an  inquisitorial  organiza- 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  269 

tion.  It  can  demand  reports  and  investigate  the  activities 
of  corporations  which  are  thought  to  be  violating  some  of 
the  anti-trust  provisions.  It  may  make  recom-  Federal 

.       Trade  Com- 

mendations    to    the    attorney-general    and,    if   mission. 
necessary,  aid  in  the  prosecution  of  offending  corporations. 
The  final  authority  over  corporations  rests  in  the  courts, 
particularly  in  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.     That 
body  must  pass  upon  the  legal  status  of  a  given 
holding  company,  that  is,  it  must  decide  whether    Court 

.  .  .  ,         ,     Decisions. 

the  corporation  in  question  is  or  is  not  a  legal 
monopoly.  In  1910  the  court  ordered  the  dissolution  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  and  the  American  Tobacco 
Company.  It  was  shown  that  these  combinations  had 
developed,  through  unfair  competition,  an  unreasonable 
restraint  of  trade.  A  monopoly  existed  because  of  the 
power  to  limit  output  and  fix  prices.  Another  important 
decision  was  reached  in  1920  regarding  the  United  States 
Steel  Corporation.  This  corporation  was  not  declared 
illegal,  because  in  spite  of  its  size  it  was  held  not  to  be 
a  monopoly. 

How  can  the  State  best  secure  to  society  the  gains  of 
large  scale  production?  Because  the  problem  presents  so 
many  different  aspects,  no  generalization  can  be  other 

possibili- 

attempted.  Nevertheless  society  must  have  ties, 
some  protection  against  the  abuses  of  monopoly.  Several 
courses  of  action  have  been  already  indicated.  Germany 
has  frankly  recognized  monopolies  as  legitimate  and  encour- 
aged great  selling  agencies  known  as  Kartels.  For  the 
United  States  federal  incorporation  has  been  suggested. 
Uniform  and  open  systems  of  accounting  would  also  expose 
monopoly  practices  and  profits  to  the  searchlight  of  public 
opinion.  It  has  been  argued  further  that  the  Federal  Trade 


270  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Commission  should  be  given  additional  powers.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  too  much  regulation 
hampers  efficiency.  As  a  final  weapon  there  is  always  the 
possibility  of  government  price-fixing  commissions.  Our 
war-time  experience,  however,  shows  us  the  difficulty  of 
determining  not  only  a  fair  price,  but  also  a  fair  rate  of 
profits. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  monopoly  and  monopoly  price. 

2.  Show  the  relation  of  monopoly  to  large  scale  production,  and 
to  the  corporate  form  of  business  organization. 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  so-called  law  of  supply  and 
demand? 

4.  Differentiate  between  an  elastic  and  an  inelastic  demand. 

5.  What  is  the  principle  of  decreasing  cost? 

6.  Show  the  limitations  upon  monopoly. 

7.  Make  your  own  classification  of  the  kinds  of  monopoly. 

8.  Illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  legal  monopolies. 

9.  Explain    the    difference    between    natural    and    artificial 
monopolies. 

10.  Show  how  there  can  be  monopolies  of  labor. 

n.  What  kind  of  a  monopoly  is  the  trust?    Why  is  it  so  called? 

12.  Sketch  the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  trusts. 

13.  What  advantages  may  a  monopoly  possess? 

14.  Show  the  disadvantages. 

15.  Explain    the    attitudes    that    society    may    assume    toward 
monopoly. 

1 6.  Give  the  main  features  of  two  federal  laws  seeking  its  regulation. 

17.  State  some  recent  developments. 

1 8.  What  suggestions  do  you  have  for  the  regulation  of  monopoly? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  nature  and  organization  of  a  holding  company. 

2.  The  history  and  practices  of  some  great  capitalistic  monopoly. 

3.  The  Sherman  Anti- trust  Law  and  its  effects. 


The  Regulation  of  Monopoly  271 

4.  The  Clayton  Act  —  its  detailed  provisions. 

5.  The  Federal  Trade  Commission  and  its  work. 

6.  Great  Supreme  Court  decisions  concerning  the  trusts. 

7.  The  advantages  of  federal  incorporation. 

8.  An  interstate  industrial  commission. 

9.  The  platform  of  the  Progressive  Party  in  1912. 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.    American  Economic  Life.     Chapter  XXVII. 
CLAY,H.     Economics  for  the  General  Reader.     Chapters  VII  and  VIII. 
ELY,  R.  T.    Outlines  of  Economics.    Chapter  XIII. 
HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems.     Chapter  IX. 
MEADE,  E.  S.     Corporation  Finance. 
TARBELL,  I.  M.    History  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 
VAN  HISE,  C.  R.     Concentration  and  Control. 

VOUNG,   J.    T.     The   New   American   Government   and   Its   Work. 
Chapters  VII  and  VIII. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
GOVERNMENT  CONTROL  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

I.  General  features 

1 .  Natural  monopoly 

2.  Public  utility 

3.  National  control 

II.  Development  of  the  railroad 

1.  Rapid  growth 

2.  Characteristics 

3.  The  evil  of  discrimination 
III.  Regulation  of  the  railroad 

1.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Act 

2.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 

3.  Results 

4.  Effects  of  the  Sherman  Act 

5.  Later  legislation 

6.  Government  operation  during  war 

7.  Esch-Cummins  Act 

8.  The  Railroad  Labor  Board 

9.  The  difficulties  of  rate-fixing 
IV.  Other  transportation  agencies 

1.  Telegraph  and  telephone 

2.  Express  companies 

3.  Water  transportation 

General  Features. — Transportation  agencies  are  nat- 
ural monopolies,  that  is,  they  are  subject  to  the  law  of 
Natural  increasing  returns.  The  railroad  is  an  outstand- 
monopoiy.  mg  exaniple.  profits  increase  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  in  the  volume  of  business.  This 

272 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  273 

makes  possible  the  partial  utilization  of  receipts  to- 
ward paying  for  the  building  of  such  things  as  tracks, 
bridges,  stations,  and  rolling  stock,  rather  than  for  the 
immediate  cost  of  transportation.  Competition,  which 
means  the  duplication  of  equipment,  is  wasteful.  The 
monopolistic  character  of  many  transportation  agencies  was 
not  at  first  recognized  by  public  opinion  or  by  statute  law. 
Disastrous  competition  was  frequently  encouraged.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  railroad  has  often  abused  its  monoply 
power  by  unfair  practices.  Because  of  the  principle  of 
increasing  returns,  it  has  sought  increased  business  so 
eagerly  that  favors  have  been  shown  and  discriminations 
made  illegally. 

The  essential  character  of  transportation  service,  as  well 
as  its  monopolistic  nature,  makes  it  a  public  utility.  Again, 
the  early  railroads  were  built  partly  by  govern-    pubiic 
ment  aid.     Finally,  a  railroad  has  the  right  of    utlllty> 
eminent  domain.    If  an  individual  does  not  care  to  sell  his 
property,  but  if  it  is  necessary  for  the  construction  of  a 
road,  the  railroad  has  the  power  to  seize  it  and  to  pay  him 
an  appraised  valuation.     For  these  reasons  the  railroad  and 
most  other  transportation  agencies  have  been  termed  quasi- 
public  corporations. 

The  constitution  specifically  states  that  "Congress  shall 
have  power  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and 
among  the  several  states  and  with  the  Indian    National 
tribes."  The  absence  of  this  power  on  the  part   controL 
of  the  federal  government  had  been  one  of  the  chief  defects 
of  the  Articles  of  Confederation.    Nevertheless,  the  fathers 
little  dreamed  of  the  revolution  that  was  to  take  place 
in  methods  of  transportation,  nor  of  the  importance  of  this 
simple  statement.     The  courts  subsequently  interpreted 


274  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  term  commerce  in  its  broadest  sense.  Chief  Justice 
Marshall,  who  formulated  so  many  important  decisions  in 
our  early  history,  denned  commerce  to  mean  intercourse. 
There  has  therefore  been  little  dispute  concerning  the  status 
of  such  later  inventions  as  the  telegraph  and  the  telephone. 
Most  means  of  transportation  are  known  legally  as  com- 
mon carriers.  Although  the  federal  government  has  control 
over,  inter-state  commerce,  the  state  has  some  slight  control 
over  infra-state  commerce.  With  the  industrial  expansion 
of  the  country  and  the  ramification  of  the  great  arteries  of 
commerce  throughout  the  land,  federal  jurisdiction  has 
become  relatively  more  important  and  overshadowed  that 
of  the  commonwealth. 

Development  of  the  Railroad. — The  perfection  of  the 
locomotive  in  England  took  place  about  the  same  time  as 
Rapid  Fulton's  successful  invention  of  the  steam  boat, 

growth.  'pjie  ear}ies|-  railroads  in  America  were  small 
affairs  designed  for  horse  cars.  There  has  been  a  tre- 
mendous development  from  the  primitive  wood  burning 
steam  engine  to  the  powerful  locomotive  of  to-day.  The 
early  carriages  were  small,  open  affairs  like  the  stage  coach, 
and  the  speed  was  slow  and  uncertain.  By  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War  some  improvements  had  been  made  and  about 
thirty  thousand  miles  of  track  laid.  During  Grant's  admin- 
istration the  first  trans-continental  railroad  was  built. 
There  was  a  veritable  fever  of  railroad  building,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  century  there  were  two  hundred  thousand  miles 
of  trackage.  The  United  States  leads  the  nations  of  the 
world  in  railroad  mileage.  The  census  of  1920  disclosed 
almost  three  hundred  thousand  miles.  According  to  recent 
figures  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  the  labor 
employed  in  the  railroad  industry  numbers  one  and  a  half 


Government  Control  of  Transportation 


275 


million  persons.  The  capital  invested  is  estimated  at 
twenty  billions  of  dollars.  Next  to  agriculture,  rail- 
roading is  the  greatest  single  business  in  the  United 
States. 

Railroads  took  the  place  of  the  earlier  roads  and  canals 
in  developing  the  country.     The  rapid  growth  of  cities  and 
the  settlement  of  the  West  would  have  been    character- 
impossible  without  them.     Time  and  space  have    : 
been  annihilated.     It  took  as  long  to  go  from  Boston  to 


PASSENGSX  CAR  IN    1830—6.  &  O.  R.  R. 

Washington  in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  as  it  does 
now  to  cross  the  continent.  Because  of  the  need  for  trans- 
portation facilities  early  railroad  building  was  encouraged 
by  the  government.  The  national  government  gave  the 
railroads  thousands  of  acres  of  the  public  lands.  States 


276 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


advanced  money  and  granted  immunity  from   taxation. 
Their  securities  were  eagerly  bought  by  both  individuals 


THE  "DE  WITT  CLINTON"  TRAIN  OF  1831 

and  governments.  This  rapid  and  extensive  railroad  build- 
ing had  its  misfortunes.  Some  roads  took  a  long  time  to 
show  profits,  because  of  the  great  initial  expense  and  the 


THE  LARGEST  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  THE  WORLD 

time  required  to  develop  a  heavy  volume  of  traffic  in  the 
thinly  settled  sections.     Financial  failures  and  reorganiza- 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  277 

tions  took  place.  Meanwhile,  the  control  was  gradually 
shifting  into  the  hands  of  fewer  individuals.  To-day,  the 
railroads  can  be  classified  not  only  geographically  but  also 
financially.  Thus,  we  speak  of  the  Harriman  and  Gould 
lines,  or  of  the  Vanderbilt  and  Moore  interests. 

The  monopolistic  development  of  the  railroad,  although 
inevitable,  was  unforeseen.  As  the  railroad  grew  in  size 
and  power,  the  public  attitude  changed  from  The  evil 

that  of  encouragement  to  one  of  censure.     The    of  discrimi- 
nation, 
cry  of  extortionate  rates  was  raised.     It  was 

also  claimed  that  particular  cities  and  individuals  were  dis- 
criminated against.  A  lower  charge  was  sometimes  made 
for  a  longer  than  for  a  shorter  haul.  This  happened  in 
transportation  between  two  seaports,  where  there  was  com- 
petition with  cheap  water  transportation.  Again,  dis- 
criminations were  made  concerning  different  commodities. 
Thus,  Minneapolis  claimed  it  was  so  much  cheaper  to 
send  wheat  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  for  export  than  flour  that 
her  milling  business  was  in  danger  of  ruin.  Finally,  dis- 
criminations were  practiced  against  individuals.  A  large 
shipper  was  granted  a  cheaper  rate  than  a  smaller  shipper 
for  the  same  service.  An  unpleasant  connection  was 
shown  between  railroad  discriminations  and  the  growth  of 
certain  trusts.  The  monopoly  power  of  the  railroads  was 
felt  to  have  such  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  fortunes  of 
men  and  the  fate  of  communities  that  the  demand  for 
government  regulation  became  imperative. 

Regulation  of  the  Railroad.— In  1887  was  passed  the 
famous  Interstate  Commerce  Act,  which  represents  the 
first  attempt  to  deal  comprehensively  with  the  whole  prob- 
lem of  national  transportation.  It  contained  the  following 
main  provisions:  (i)  unreasonable  or  extortionate  rates 


278  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

were  prohibited;  (2)  discriminations  between  persons, 
places,  and  commodities  were  made  illegal;  (3)  fares  and 
The  rates  were  to  be  made  public;  (4)  common 

commerce  carriers  were  not  to  charge  more  for  a  shorter 
Act-  than  for  a  longer  distance  under  the  same 

conditions  of  transportation;  (5)  pooling  transactions 
between  railroads  were  forbidden. 

For  the  enforcement  of  the  above  provisions  a  commis- 
sion was  created  which  is  known  as  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission.    It  originally  consisted  of  five  members, 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent 
interstate      of  the  Senate.     The  number  of  commissioners 

Commerce  f 

Commis-  was  later  increased  to  seven,  and  the  term  of 
office  fixed  at  seven  years.  Its  original  powers 
were  merely  those  of  investigation.  Where  discriminations 
were  found  to  exist,  the  commission  was  to  bring  suit 
against  the  railroad  through  the  usual  channel  of  the  courts. 
Since  the  time  of  its  creation  the  scope  and  powers  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  have  gradually  widened. 
It  has  become  the  central  governing  body  for  the  regula- 
tion of  all  interstate  commerce. 

The  results  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  were  more 
apparent  in  the  matter  of  preventing  discrimination  than 
in  preventing  virtual  "pooling."  The  publica- 
tion of  the  rates  and  the  short  and  long  haul 
clause  of  the  new  law  helped  to  prevent  discriminations 
between  persons  and  places,  but  the  prohibition  of  "pool- 
ing" was  difficult  to  enforce.  The  true  monopoly  char- 
acter of  the  railroad  had  not  been  discerned  at  that  time. 
It  was  not  seen  that  it  was  both  impossible  and  undesir- 
able to  try  to  restore  competition  between  railroads.  There- 
fore, when  the  attempt  was  made,  the  inevitable  hap- 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  279 

pened.  When  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  "pooling,"  the 
roads  were  forced  into  combination.  Financial  wrecks 
and  reorganizations  took  place,  out  of  which  arose  fewer 
and  greater  systems  by  the  process  of  consolidation. 

The  Sherman  An ti- trust  Act  of  1890  marks  the  next 
step  in  the  history  of  railroad  regulation.     Many  of  the 
combinations   which   had   been   effected   were 
declared  illegal.     In  1897  the  Supreme  Court    Jfthe8 
declared  against  associations  for  the  purpose  of   fcte.rman 
rate-making.     In  1904  it  ordered  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Northern  Securities  Company,  which  was  a 
holding  company  designed  to  unite  the  Great  Northern, 
the  Northern  Pacific,  and  the  Burlington  systems.    In 
1912  the  court  dissolved  the  merger  of  the  Union  Pacific 
and  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroads,  because  the  former 
company  held  forty-six  per  cent  of  the  stock  of  the  latter 
company.    It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  true  monopolistic 
character  of  the  railroad  was  not  seen  until  the  advent  of 
the  World  War. 

The  Elkins  Act  of  1903  increased  the  effectiveness  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  by  giving  it  additional 
powers.  Corporations,  as  well  as  their  agents,  Later  legis- 
were  now  liable  to  prosecution.  Again,  the  lation* 
Hepburn  Act  of  1906  permitted  the  Commission  to  revise 
rates.  Before  this  time,  it  could  merely  rule  that  a  given 
rate  was  unfair.  Now  it  had  the  power  definitely  to  fix 
a  maximum  rate.  Again,  its  authority  was  extended  to 
all  companies  doing  an  interstate  business,  including  pipe- 
lines. The  later  Act  of  1910  created  a  special  Commerce 
Court  in  which  railroad  cases  might  be  tried.  However, 
this  experience  was  not  successful  and  the  court  was  abol- 
ished in  1913.  The  Adamson  Act  of  1916  dealt  especially 


280  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

with  problems  of  wages  and  working  conditions  in  the  rail- 
road industry.  At  that  time  the  railroad  brotherhoods 
were  threatening  to  strike  and  to  hold  up  the  transporta- 
tion facilities  of  the  entire  nation.  Such  a  situation  was 
antagonistic  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole  American  nation. 
Behind  the  great  mass  of  railroad  legislation  of  the 
twentieth  century  may  be  observed  the  steady  advance  of 
the  principle  of  government  regulation  and  the 
-  gradual  recognition  of  the  monopoly  character 
tion  during  Qf  the  raiiroa(is.  These  tendencies  were  hast- 
ened by  the  World  War,  when  it  was  imperative 
to  establish  a  unified  control  over  the  chief  transportation 
agencies  of  the  country.  On  January  first,  1918,  the 
President  declared  the  railroads  of  the  nation  to  be  under 
the  operation  of  the  government.  This  was  continued  for 
twenty-six  months  under  a  Director  General  of  the  Rail- 
roads. Similar  governmental  control  was  exercised  over 
the  telegraph  and  telephone  lines.  Such  measures  played 
an  important  part  in  winning  the  war.  Prompt  action 
was  necessary  to  insure  the  transportation  of  troops  and 
war  materials  in  the  most  direct  and  systematic  fashion. 
Government  operation  of  the  railroads,  however,  was 
purely  a  war  measure  and  its  success  must  be  judged 
accordingly.  The  needs  of  such  a  critical  period  were  so 
abnormal  that  the  experiment  proved  neither  the  advan- 
tages nor  the  disadvantages  of  general  government  oper- 
ation of  public  utilities. 

With  the  cessation  of  hostilities  came  the  question  of 
the  future  of  the  railroads.  While  some  writers  made  a 
plea  for  the  continuation  of  government  operation,  with  the 
ultimate  ami  of  government  ownership,  others  were  equally 
insistent  in  demanding  that  the  roads  be  turned  back 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  281 

immediately  to  their  owners.  A  third  scheme,  called  the 
Plumb  Plan,  proposed  the  control  of  the  railroads  by  the 
workers.  Finally,  the  Esch-Cummins  Act  was 
passed,  and  the  roads  were  returned  to  private  Cummins 
ownership  on  March  first,  1920.  This  was  an 
exceedingly  important  piece  of  railroad  legislation.  The 
equipment  and  rolling  stock  of  the  roads  had  not  been 
kept  up  during  the  war  by  any  replacement  fund.  Hence, 
the  new  legislation  provided  for  a  credit  fund  of  three 
hundred  million  dollars.  It  also  planned  for  the  ultimate 
consolidation  of  the  railroads  into  a  few  definite  systems. 
In  the  third  place,  the  Railroad  Labor  Board  was  created. 
The  powers  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  were 
strengthened,  so  that  it  could  decide  what  were  fair  rates 
and  profits.  For  the  first  two  years  of  private  control, 
the  act  defined  a  fair  return  on  the  investment  to  be  five 
and  a  half  per  cent.  An  additional  one-half  per  cent  was 
allowed  for  permanent  improvements.  The  principle  of 
profit-sharing  was  also  introduced,  for  it  was  provided  that 
any  excess  over  six  per  cent  should  be  divided  between  the 
corporation  and  the  government.  The  present  status  of 
the  railroads  is  thus  private  ownership  and  operation,  with 
almost  complete  governmental  regulation. 

The  Railroad  Labor  Board  is  composed  of  nine  members 
representing  equally  the  workers,  the  managers,  and  the 
public.  They  are  appointed  by  the  President,  TheRail_ 
with  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  from  lists  of 
six  names  each.  The  workers  and  the  managers 
prepare  their  own  lists  of  candidates.  The  Board  investi- 
gates and  reports  upon  working  conditions  and  wages  in 
the  railroad  industry.  It  is  hoped  that  such  a  conciliatory 
body  will  be  able  to  reconcile  the  interests  of  capital  and 


282  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

labor  with  each  other  and  with  the  best  interests  of  the 
general  public. 

Thus,  the  railroad  problem  is  of  vital  interest  to  the 
employee,  to  the  owners  of  railroad  securities,  and  to 
the  public.  The  railroad  makes  possible  geo- 
cuities  of  graphical  division  of  labor,  and  secures  to  a 
mg'  nation  its  greatest  volume  of  production.  The 
limiting  force  is  the  cost  of  transportation,  which  is  con- 
stantly balancing  the  gains  of  geographical  division  of  labor. 
Freight  charges  are  a  considerable  element  in  the  cost  of 
living.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  important  that 
these  quasi-public  corporations  pay  a  fair  rate  of  profit  to 
the  owners  of  their  securities.  The  fixing  of  fair  railroad 
charges  is  a  difficult  matter  because  of  the  nature  of  the 
railroad  business  which  operates  upon  the  principle  of 
increasing  returns.  A  fair  rate  of  profit  is  equally  hard 
to  determine.  In  fixing  the  rate,  several  factors  must  be 
considered.  Shall  it  be  uniform  throughout  the  country, 
or  should  it  vary  with  the  different  roads  according  to  the 
volume  of  business  and  the  cost  of  construction?  A  recent 
increase  in  freight  rates  made  such  a  geographical  distinc- 
tion. Again,  shall  a  fair  rate  of  profit  be  computed  upon  a 
valuation  of  the  railroad,  or  shall  the  reverse  process  be 
adopted?  The  capitalization  of  the  railroad  itself  cannot 
be  accepted  as  a  correct  valuation  because  of  the  evil  of 
overcapitalization.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
found  it  necessary  to  attempt  a  physical  valuation  of  the 
railroads  and  their  tangible  assets. 

Other  Transportation  Agencies. — The  railroad  is  the 
chief  transportation  agency  and  typifies  the  general  problem 
of  governmental  regulation.  Other  common  carriers  are  the 
telegraph  and  telephone.  Before  the  Civil  War,  telegraph 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  283 

lines  had  been  constructed  along  the  chief  railroads.    In 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  came  Bell's 
invention  of  the  telephone.    At  first  it  seemed   Telegraph 
adapted  only  for  short  distances,  but  it  is  now   telephone, 
possible  to  talk  across  the  continent.    Nevertheless,  for  long 
distances,  it  is  still  more  economical  to  use  the  telegraph. 

The  carrying  of  the  mails  is  a  long-recognized  public 
function,  but  this  is  not  true  of  the  transportation  of  small 
packages.  Indeed,  only  recently  has  the  govern-  Express 
ment  established  a  parcels  post.  The  express  comPames- 
business  had  been  left  to  private  initiative.  Express  com- 
panies grew  in  size  and  power  with  the  development  of 
the  railroads,  with  which  a  close  connection  was  maintained. 
Monopolistic  tendencies  were  displayed  by  such  usual 
symptoms  as  price-fixing.  Although  the  great  companies 
remained  separate,  they  divided  the  country  among  them- 
selves to  avoid  the  wastes  of  competition.  As  their  rates 
became  higher,  the  demand  for  a  parcels  post  increased. 
In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  private  companies,  such  a 
law  was  passed  in  1913.  The  comparative  rates  of  the  par- 
cels post  were  so  low,  that,  in  the  following  year,  one  great 
express  company  was  forced  out  of  business. 

The  possibilities  of  our  waterways  were  overlooked  in 
the  era  of  railroad  building.  The  earlier  canals  fell  into 
disuse,  until  the  increasing  freight  rates  called  Water 

attention  to  the  cheaper  method  of  transpor-    transpor- 
tation, 
tation    by   water.     Railroads    and   waterways 

should  form  cooperating,  rather  than  competing  systems,  for 
each  can  supplement  the  other.  Railroads  can  be  used  for 
transporting  valuable  and  perishable  goods,  while  the  cheap 
and  bulky  commodities  can  be  left  for  water  transportation. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  natural  resources  of  America 


284  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

are  rich  in  water  possibilities.  The  internal  and  coastwise 
shipping  of  the  United  States  is  restricted  to  American  ships, 
but  before  the  World  War  the  American  flag  had  almost  dis- 
appeared from  the  high  seas.  European  demands  during 
the  great  conflict  created  a  merchant  marine,  and  it  remains 
to  be  seen  what  part  it  will  play  in  future  international 
trade.  During  the  war  a  large  number  of  ships  were  built 
in  an  incredibly  short  time,  but  at  an  enormous  expense 
to  the  government. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  the  principle  of  increasing  returns  in  connection  with 
the  railroad. 

2.  Give  some  of  its  effects. 

3.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  meaning  of  quasi-public  corporations. 

4.  Give  the  reasons  why  the  railroads  should  be  so  classified. 

5.  Explain  the  term  "eminent  domain." 

6.  Why  does  the  federal  government  have  control  over  inter- 
state commerce? 

7.  What  interpretation  has  been  put  upon  the  term  "commerce"? 

8.  Show  the  rapid  increase  of  railroads  in  the  United  States. 

9.  Show  their  present  size  and  importance. 

10.  How  did  the  government  foster  early  railroad  building?  Why? 

11.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  various  types  of  railroad  discrimi- 
nations. 

12.  Give  the  leading  provisions  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act 
and  its  effects. 

13.  Show  the  effects  of  the  Sherman  Anti- trust  Law  upon  the 
railroads. 

14.  Name  and  give  the  important  feature  of  several  pieces  of 
railroad  legislation  from  1890  to  1920. 

15.  How   did   government   operation   of    the   railroads   succeed 
during  the  war? 

1 6.  When  and  under  what  provisions  were  they  returned  to  their 
woners? 


Government  Control  of  Transportation  285 

17.  Why  are  just  railroad  rates  both  important  and  difficult  to 
determine? 

1 8.  Show  the  importance  of  some  other  transportation  agencies. 

19.  Show  the  relation  of  water  transportation  to  rail  transportation. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  railroad  as  a  monopoly. 

2.  The  history  and  powers  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. 

3.  Railroad  regulation  from  the  Sherman  to  the  Adamson  Acts- 

4.  Government  operation  during  the  war. 

5.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  nationalization  of  railroads. 

6.  The  Esch-Cummins  Act — its  detailed  provisions. 

7.  The  Railroad  Labor  Board — its  work  and  functions. 

8.  Railroad  valuation  and  rate-fixing. 

9.  Government  versus  private  ownership  of  railroads. 
10.  How  railroads  are  operated  in  Europe. 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.     American  Economic  Life.     Chapters  XXIX  and  XXX 
CARVER,  T.  N.    Principles  of  Political  Economy.    Chapter  XIX. 
ELY,  R.  T.     Outlines  of  Economics.    Chapter  XXVII. 
HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems.    Chapter  VIII. 
JOHNSON,  E.  R.     American  Railway  Transportation. 
JOHNSON,  E.  R.  and  HUEBNER,  G.  G.    Railway  Traffic  and  Rates. 
Reports  of  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
SMITH,  J.  R.     The  Ocean  Carrier. 

YOUNG,  J.  T.     The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work.     Chap- 
ter VI. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
REGULATION  OF  INTERNATIONAL  TRADE 

I.  Fundamental  principles 

1 .  Geographical  division  of  labor 

2.  The  mode  of  payment 

3.  The  complicated  process 
II.  The  tariff  problem 

1 .  Gains  of  free  trade 

2.  Infant  industries 

3.  The  home  market 

4.  Work  and  wages 

5.  National  self-support 

6.  World  tendencies 
III.  Tariff  policies  in  America 

1 .  The  early  period 

2.  Results  of  the  Civil  War 

3.  Recent  legislation 

4.  The  tariff  in  politics 

5.  The  Tariff  Commission 

IV.  The  expansion  of  American  commerce 

1 .  Its  character 

2.  Recent  changes 

3.  Effects  of  the  World  War: 

a.  On  exports 

b.  Rate  of  exchange 

4.  The  outlook 

Fundamental     Principles. — Improved     methods     of 
transportation,  such  as  the  locomotive  and  the  steamboat, 

286 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  287 

widen  the  scope  of  foreign  as  well  as  of  domestic  commerce. 
Monopoly,  large  scale  production,  and  the  corporation  are 
world  phenomena  which  have  affected  the 
development  of  trade  relationships.  The  Indus- 
trial  Revolution  intensified  geographical  division  labor- 
of  labor  and  resulted  in  the  expansion  of  international 
commerce.  England  was  the  first  nation  to  experience  this 
great  industrial  adjustment,  which  later  appeared  upon  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  in  America.  At  the  present  time 
the  Industrial  Revolution  is  at  work  in  Japan.  This 
movement  profoundly  alters  the  volume  and  character 
of  foreign  trade.  The  State  ceases  to  be  economically  self- 
sufficient  and  becomes  more  specialized.  The  exports  of 
manufactured  articles  tend  to  increase,  as  well  as  the 
importation  of  foods  and  raw  materials.  Without  the 
Industrial  Revolution,  however,  geographical  division  of 
labor  could  still  be  observed.  The  climatic  differences 
throughout  the  world  make  it  impossible  for  any  one  nation 
to  produce  all  the  necessities  and  comforts  of  modern  life. 
Thus,  the  nations  of  the  North  exchange  their  furs  for  the 
coffee  of  the  tropics. 

Just  as  there  has  been  developed  no  commonly  accepted 
international  language,  so  there  is  as  yet  no  unified  inter- 
national currency.  Nevertheless,  gold  is  the  The  mode 
standard  of  value  for  all  foreign  trade,  and  the  of  paym< 
unit  of  measurement  commonly  used  is  the  English  pound. 
International  drafts  are  generally  drawn  upon  some  well 
known  London  bank,  for  that  city  is  the  commercial  and 
financial  center  of  the  world.  It  is  very  important,  how- 
ever, that  the  student  look  behind  such  mere  paper  trans- 
actions. In  the  final  analysis  goods  are  paid  for  with  goods. 
A  nation  will  not  go  on  exporting  commodities  unless  it 


288  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

expects  to  get  other  goods  in  return.     In  the  long  run,  the 
imports  tend  to  balance  the  exports.    The  temporary  dii 


©  Ewing  Galloway 
THE  WORLD'S  MARKET  PLACE — NEW  YORK  CITY 

ference  between  the  two  is  known  as  the  balance  of  trade. 
An  excess  of  exports  is  known  as  a  favorable  balance  of 


Regulation  of  International  Trade 


289 


G 


290  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

trade.  It  is  generally  cancelled  by  a  shipment  of  gold. 
It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  a  very  desirable  thing  for  a 
nation  to  have  an  excess  of  exports,  and  a  compensating 
stream  of  gold  flowing  into  the  country.  Experience,  how- 
ever,  has  shown  that  the  favored  country  may  suffer  from 
high  prices,  partially  caused  by  the  increased  amount  of 
gold. 

Th'e  exchange  of  goods  which  we  call  international  trade 
may  not  take  place  directly  between  two  nations.  Thus, 
Com  li  ^e  United  States  may  send  pork  to  France, 
cated  which  exports  wine  to  England,  which  exports 

cloth  to  Brazil,  which  in  turn  sends  coffee  to  the 
United  States.  When  international  accounts  are  balanced 
the  American  pork  is  paid  for  with  Brazilian  coffee,  just 
as  the  English  cloth  is  paid  for  with  French  wine.  The 
shipping  of  gold  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  use  of 
credit  instruments  such  as  the  draft.  London  has  been  a 
world's  clearing  house  in  which  are  balanced  the  total 
imports  against  the  total  exports  of  a  nation.  The  great 
majority  of  debts  are  paid  by  an  exchange  of  paper,  but  the 
final  difference  between  exports  and  imports  is  settled  by 
a  shipment  of  gold. 

The  Tariff  Problem. — Free  trade  is  a  frank  recognition 
of  the  gains  of  geographical  division  of  labor.  It  is  a  direct 
Gains  of  application  of  the  law  of  comparative  costs,  by 
trade*  which  each  nation  tends  to  export  those  things 
which  it  can  produce  most  effectively  and  to  import  those 
things  which  it  can  produce  least  effectively.  Tariffs  are 
barriers  raised  by  the  various  nations  against  the  free  flow 
of  international  trade.  They  attempt  to  make  political 
boundaries  economic  boundaries  also.  Within  a  nation  the 
gains  of  geographical  division  of  labor  are  unquestioned. 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  291 

Thus,  the  alarm  clocks  of  Connecticut  are  freely  exchanged 
for  the  oranges  of  Florida.  It  would  be  possible  to  build 
clock  factories  in  Florida  and  make  the  state  independent 
to  that  extent  of  Yankee  ingenuity.  Vast  green-houses 
could  be  built  and  maintained  at  considerable  expense  in 
Connecticut,  in  order  that  the  New  England  business  man 
could  have  the  satisfaction  of  eating  home-grown  oranges. 
The  absurdity  of  such  economic  waste  is  apparent.  Within 
our  nation  state  lines  offer  no  obstacles  to  the  free  flow  of 
domestic  commerce.  Nature  recognizes  no  such  artificial 
barrier  as  a  tariff,  and  the  forests  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton continue  across  the  Canadian  border.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  wheat  lands.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Republic, 
individual  states  attempted  to  raise  tariff  walls  against 
each  other.  This  became  a  glaring  evil  under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  when  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
attempted  such  discrimination.  The  new  Constitution, 
therefore,  gave  to  the  federal  government  control  over 
both  interstate  and  foreign  commerce. 

A  number  of  considerations  have  prevented  the  exten- 
sion of  free  trade  from  a  national  to  an  international  basis. 
Perhaps  the  best  defense  of  protection  is  found  infant 
in  the  infant  industry  argument,  which  appeared  J 
early  in  American  history.  It  was  argued,  for  illustration, 
that  America  had  as  good  natural  resources  as  England 
for  the  production  of  iron.  Nevertheless,  so  long  as  the 
cheap  foreign  product  came  into  the  country  the  native 
product  could  not  be  developed.  Home  production  in  this 
field  could  not  succeed  because  it  was  impossible  for  an 
infant  to  struggle  against  the  strength  of  maturity.  But 
if  a  tariff  were  imposed,  the  native  industry  could  develop. 
Under  such  governmental  protection,  it  could  pass  from 


29  2  Problems  of  A  merica n  Democracy 

infancy  to  maturity  and  finally  stand  upon  its  own  feet. 
The  industry  could  then  meet  foreign  competition  without 
the  artificial  protection  of  the  tariff.  The  question  then 
arises  as  to  the  length  of  the  period  of  infancy.  A  leading 
authority  upon  the  tariff  suggests  that  thirty  years  of 
protection  is  a  sufficiently  long  trial  period  to  demon- 
strate whether  an  industry  is  capable  of  maintaining  itself 
against  foreign  competition.  At  the  end  of  such  a  period, 
however,  the  " vested  interests"  cry  is  often  raised  when 
an  attempt  is  made  to  abolish  the  protection.  Again,  it  is 
contended  that  a  successful  industry  is  loathe  to  admit 
that  it  has  reached  the  stage  of  economic  independence. 
Higher  prices  and  profits  may  be  enjoyed  at  home  by  the 
trusts,  which  can  undersell  their  foreign  competitors  in 
the  Old  World  markets. 

The  home  market  argument  for  protection  asserts  that 
the  introduction  of  new  industries  will  not  curtail  the  pro- 
The  home  duction  of  raw  materials  within  a  nation.  The 
market.  demand  of  mill  workers  for  food  is  an  illustration 
of  how  the  farmer  will  find  a  new  home  market  for  his 
products.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  there 
is  no  creation  of  an  additional  market,  but  merely  the 
substitution  of  an  increased  home  market  for  a  decreased 
foreign  market.  Goods  are  exchanged  for  goods.  If  less 
manufactured  goods  are  imported  because  of  the  home 
industries,  comparatively  fewer  raw  materials  will  be 
exported. 

The  "full-dinner  pail"  has  also  been  used  as  a  cam- 
paign slogan  by  the  party  seeking  election  upon  the  issue 
Work  and  of  the  tariff.  It  is  claimed  that  the  tariff  meas- 
ures the  difference  in  the  wages  paid  European 
and  American  workmen.  The  tariff  thus  protects  our 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  293 

workers  against  the  competition  of  cheap  foreign  labor. 
It  is  further  contended  that  the  protected  industries  fur- 
nish additional  employment.  However,  opponents  of  the 
tariff  assert,  by  a  similar  line  of  reasoning,  that  no  additional 
employment  has  been  created,  but  that  the  process  is 
merely  one  of  substitution.  Employment  in  the  pro- 
tected industries  has  grown  at  the  expense  of  the  unpro- 
tected. Does  the  tariff  raise  wages?  Theoretically,  real 
wages  should  be  highest  when  a  nation  is  turning  its  pro- 
ductive energies  into  the  most  effective  kinds  of  labor,  as 
determined  by  the  gains  of  geographical  division  of  labor. 
It  is  also  objected  that  protection  raises  the  general  cost 
of  living  for  all  workers,  although  wages  may  be  high  in 
some  strongly  protected  industries. 

The  national  self-sustaining  plea  is  another  strong  argu- 
ment for  protection.     A  nation  is  safer,  freer,  and  more 
independent  when  it  enjoys  diversified  indus-        . 
tries.     Over-specialization  may  spell  unemploy-    scif- 

,  .,..,,      support. 

ment  to  a  community  as  well  as  to  an  individual. 
Ireland  and  India  have  suffered  great  hardships  because 
they  have  been  largely  agricultural  nations  operating  under 
the  one-crop  system.  On  the  other  hand,  over-indus- 
trialization may  be  equally  dangerous  because  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  unemployment.  Unlike  the  precarious  foreign 
market,  the  home  market  is  subject  to  political  control 
and  hence  is  more  stable.  England  is  an  illustration  of  an 
industrial  nation  which  is  dependent  upon  foreign  markets 
for  both  imports  and  exports.  War  makes  the  situation 
more  acute.  If,  during  the  World  War,  Great  Britain  had 
not  had  control  of  the  seas,  she  could  have  been  starved 
into  submission  within  a  few  weeks.  Again,  it  was  found 
that  the  manufacture  of  optical  glass  needed  immediately 


294  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

for  artillery  sights  was  a  German  industry.  Hence,  a 
special  government  report  placed  much  emphasis  upon 
what  are  known  as  key  industries.  Thus,  there  has  been 
found  to  be  a  close  relationship  between  the  manufacture 
of  dye-stuffs  and  the  production  of  explosives.  As  long 
as  war  continues,  there  must  be  economic  as  well  as  mili- 
tary preparedness.  Armaments  and  tariffs  go  together. 
The  political  unification  of  Germany  was  preceded  by  the 
Zollverein  or  customs  union  among  the  various  states. 
The  French  Revolution  abolished  the  internal  customs 
line  and  created  a  new  national  consciousness.  Free  trade 
is  an  ally  of  internationalism. 

In  the  middle  of  the  last  century  it  appeared  for  a  time 
as  if  the  principle  of  free  trade  would  triumph.  England 
World  had  repealed  the  corn  laws  which  taxed  the 
tendencies.  importation  of  foodstuffs.  Secure  in  her  com- 
mercial and  industrial  supremacy,  she  was  leading  the 
world  to  free  trade.  America  was  following  the  principle 
of  a  tariff  for  revenue  only,  more  than  ever  before  in  her 
history.  Events,  however,  soon  shaped  themselves  other- 
wise. The  Civil  War  created  an  unprecedented  need  for 
increased  revenue.  Out  of  the  struggle  came  a  high  pro- 
tective tariff,  which  continued  indefinitely  after  the  war 
was  over.  With  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870,  the 
unification  of  Germany  was  completed.  Under  the  lead 
of  the  Iron  Chancellor,  Bismarck,  a  series  of  protective 
measures  was  passed  and  German  manufacture  grew  apace. 
In  a  tariff  war,  other  nations  are  forced  to  retaliate. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  century,  therefore,  France  fol- 
lowed with  two  important  protectionist  measures  which, 
however,  provided  for  reciprocity.  Although  Great 
Britain  was  forced  to  face  new  competition  from  both 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  295 

Germany  and  America,  she  clung  tenaciously  to  her  policy 
of  free  trade.  Some  of  her  statesmen,  however,  began  to 
question  the  wisdom  of  such  a  lone  course,  for  Canada  and 
other  British  colonies  had  passed  tariff  legislation.  Con- 
siderable agitation  was  developed  for  some  system  of 
imperial  preferences,  which  would  give  the  advantage  to 
commerce  within  the  British  Empire.  The  World  War 
has  also  intensified  the  feeling  toward  closer  economic 
relationships  between  the  mother  country  and  the  self- 
governing  colonies. 

Tariff  Policies  in  America. — The  Revolutionary  War 
did  not  mark  such  an  immediate  turning  point  in  American 
industrial  development  as  it  did  in  our  political  The  early 
history.  To  be  sure,  there  had  grown  up  a  few  penod- 
native  manufactures  and,  at  the  outset,  Alexander  Hamilton 
had  proposed  a  policy  of  protection.  Nevertheless,  our 
early  exports  were  almost  entirely  raw  materials  and 
America,  like  most  other  western  nations,  was  dependent 
upon  England  for  her  manufactured  articles.  The  Napo- 
leonic Wars  created  a  temporary  interruption  in  this  free 
interchange  of  goods.  The  Embargo  and  Non-Intercourse 
Acts  of  Jefferson's  administration  were  followed  by  the 
War  of  1812.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  infant  industries 
of  America  were  born.  For  illustration,  it  was  then  that 
the  maufacture  of  cotton  cloth  grew  rapidly  in  New  Eng- 
land. With  the  close  of  the  great  European  struggle,  our 
growing  manufactures  were  threatened  with  a  flood  of 
goods  from  Europe.  Considerable  protectionist  sentiment 
was  developed,  and  some  tariff  measures  were  passed  in 
the  period  from  1819-1824.  The  South,  which  was  largely 
agricultural,  objected  strenuously  to  such  increases  in  the 
cost  of  living.  The  climax  was  reached  in  the  famous 


296  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

"Tariff  of  Abominations."  Nullification  and  secession 
were  threatened  by  South  Carolina,  but  checked  by  the 
vigorous  action  of  President  Jackson.  Lower  rates  were 
introduced  in  later  bills  up  to  the  middle  of  the  century. 
The  tariff  as  Americans  understand  it  to-day  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  The  financial  needs  of  the 
Results  of  emergencv  increased  the  rates  of  internal 
the  civil  revenue.  It  was  necessary  to  raise  the  tariff 

War. 

rates  accordingly.  This  is  known  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  compensation.  The  Morrill  Ac t  of  1 86 1  was  followed 
by  other  and  higher  tariffs  as  the  war  dragged  on.  By  1869 
the  average  tariff  rate  had  been  raised  almost  fifty  per  cent 
over  that  of  1857.  It  was  not  expected  at  that  time  that 
this  new  level  would  be  permanent,  but  the  end  of  the  war 
brought  no  reduction.  The  high  internal  revenue  rates 
were  removed,  but  all  attempts  to  lower  the  tariff  were 
unsuccessful.  Indeed,  in  some  cases  the  rates  were  raised. 
The  Republican  party  which  had  brought  to  a  successful 
conclusion  the  struggle  for  the  preservation  of  the  Union 
continued  in  power  and  made  protection  one  of  its  principle 
issues.  The  high  water  mark  was  reached  in  the  McKinley 
Act,  which  was  passed  in  the  administration  of  President 
Harrison.  The  principle  of  protection  was  enforced  even 
at  the  expense  of  revenue.  For  illustration,  a  duty  of  two 
cents  a  pound  upon  sugar  was  removed,  but  a  bonus  of 
two  cents  a  pound  was  placed  upon  sugar  produced  within 
the  country. 

The  Democratic  victory  under  Cleveland  meant  an 
attempt  to  lower  the  tariff.  The  Wilson  Bill  was  passed, 
Recent  but  the  President  let  it  become  law  without 
legislation.  fts  signature  because  of  his  dissatisfaction  with 
its  general  character.  The  rate  was  lowered  to  about  the 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  297 

general  level  prevailing  before  the  passage  of  the  McKinley 
Bill.  The  business  depression  of  that  period,  however, 
told  against  the  party  in  power.  With  the  return  of  the 
Republican  party  came  the  Dingley  Act  which  restored 
the  high  level  of  rates  provided  for  in  the  McKinley  Act. 
The  prosperity  of  the  period  was  immediately  attributed 
to  protection,  and  for  a  decade  the  tariff  question  lay 
dormant.  Other  new  forces,  such  as  monopoly  and  the 
high  cost  of  living,  came  into  the  fore  ground.  It  was 
vaguely  felt  that  the  tariff  had  some  causal  relationship 
to  prosperity.  Although  the  Republicans  continued  in 
power,  a  downward  revision  of  the  tariff  was  promised.  The 
Payne-Aldrich  Act  of  Taft's  administration  was  supposed 
to  be  a  step  in  this  direction.  But,  although  it  lowered 
some  duties,  it  raised  others  and  thus  maintained  nearly 
the  old  level.  A  special  session  of  Congress,  called  by 
Woodrow  Wilson,  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the  Underwood 
Tariff  Act  in  1913.  It  was  a  frank  attempt  to  lower  the 
duties.  Wool  and  iron,  for  example,  were  put  upon  the  free 
list.  The  advocates  of  protection  predicted  national  dis- 
aster, but  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  prevented  a 
normal  trial  of  the  new  tariff.  Since  1914,  the  entire  in- 
ternational situation  has  been  altered. 

Such  a  brief  sketch  has  sufficed   to  show  how  the  tariff 
has  been  made  the  foot  ball  of  political  parties.     It  has 
loomed  large  before  the  minds  of  the  American    The  tariff 
people,  who  have  attempted  to  explain  various   m  pol) 
economic  phenonena  from  this  standpoint.     One  side  has 
attributed  prosperity  to  it;  the  other,  the  trusts.     The 
truth  will  be  found  in  neither  extreme.    Professor  Taussig, 
who  is  the  leading  student  of  the  tariff  in  America,  feels  that 
its  effect  upon  our  industries  has  been  somewhat  exagger- 


298  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ated.  The  factor  most  disturbing  to  business  is  constant 
change.  "  The  tariff— a  local  issue"  was  found  by  Hancock  to 
be  a  most  unfortunate  political  slogan.  Nevertheless,  such 
is  often  the  case.  The  economic  organization  of  our  country 
is  complex,  and  each  community  or  citizen  seeks  protection 
for  its  own  product,  but  desires  to  buy  all  others  at  the 
cheapest  price.  Consequently,  a  tariff  bill  is  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  made.  It  is  arrived  at  after  a  long  and  tor- 
tuous process  of  compromising.  Here  the  evil  of  log-rolling 
appears  at  its  worst. 

In  order  to  take  the  tariff  out  of  politics  the  Tariff  Com- 
mission has  come  into  existence.     Such  a  body  was  author- 
ized by  Congress  in  1016.     It  is  bipartisan  and 

The  Tariff 

Commis-  consists  of  six  members,  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, not  more  than  three  of  whom  belong  to  the 
same  political  party.  The  function  of  the  Commission 
is  that  of  investigation.  Its  purpose  is  to  make  a  scien- 
tific and  economic  study  of  the  effects  of  various  tariff 
schedules  and  rates  upon  the  industries  affected.  Such 
material  is  furnished  to  the  President  and  to  the  appro- 
priate committees  of  Congress  when  requested.  One 
important  phase  of  the  work  is  the  study  of  international 
tariff  relationships  and  of  the  possibilities  of  reciprocity. 
The  Expansion  of  American  Commerce. — American 
foreign  commerce  is  relatively  less  important  than  that  of 
Its  many  European  nations.  Before  the  World 

character.        War  ^  per  capjta  yalue  Qf  tne  unp^g  of  Great 

Britain  was  four  times  as  great  as  our  own,  and  the  exports 
twice  as  great.  America  is  very  nearly  economically  self- 
sufficient  and  practices  great  geographical  divisions  of 
labor  within  the  nation.  Our  imports  consist  largely  of 
such  things  as  sugar,  coffee,  drugs,  silks,  rubber,  and  some 


Regulation  of  International  Trade 


299 


300  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

manufactured  articles.  Chief  among  our  exports  are 
breadstuffs,  cotton,  cotton  cloth,  copper,  oil,  iron,  steel, 
and  agricultural  machinery. 

The  results  of  high  protection  can  be  seen  in  the  changed 
character  of  our  exports  since  the  Civil  War.  Among  the 
Recent  goods  exported  manufactures  have  increased, 
changes.  an(j  raw  materials  have  held  a  relatively  less 
important  place.  Before  the  World  War  the  exports  of 
manufactured  articles  had  exceeded  the  imports.  This 
fact  led  some  writers  to  maintain  that  America  no  longer 
needed  protection.  In  the  second  place,  the  total  volume 
of  foreign  trade  has  increased  rapidly.  From  the  Civil  War 
to  the  close  of  the  century,  the  annual  value  of  the  exports 
increased  from  less  than  a  half  billion  dollars  to  over  a 
billion  dollars.  Imports  increased  rapidly,  but  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  exports.  Throughout  most  of  our 
early  history  imports  had  exceeded  exports.  As  is  the 
case  with  new  countries,  this  represented  mainly  the 
importation  of  foreign  capital  for  the  development  of 
natural  resources.  Within  a  score  of  years  after  the  Civil 
War,  the  value  of  the  exports  passed  that  of  the  imports. 
Up  to  1920  there  was  a  steady  increase  in  the  favor- 
able balance  of  trade.  Between  1906  and  1910,  for  exam- 
ple, the  annual  value  of  our  imports  averaged  one  and  a 
half  billion  dollars  and  our  exports  almost  two  billions. 
Before  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  the  United  States 
was  well  on  its  way  toward  becoming  a  great  exporting 
nation. 

The  World  War  caused  an  unprecedented  increase  in 
our  exports.  From  1910  to  1919  the  annual  value  of  our 
exports  to  Europe  increased  from  one  and  three-quarters  of 
a  billion  dollars  to  more  than  seven  billion  dollars,  while 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  301 

the  value  of  our  imports  increased  from  one  and  a  half 
billion  dollars  to  only  three  billion  dollars.  Thus,  our  so- 
called  favorable  balance  of  trade  increased  to  four  -- 

raiectS  of 

billions  of  dollars.  Although  a  steady  stream  World  War: 
of  gold  came  from  Europe  to  America,  there 
was  not  nearly  enough  of  the  precious  metal  to  cover  such 
a  difference  between  the  value  of  imports  and  exports. 
The  war-stricken  nations  of  Europe  needed  supplies,  and 
their  governments  floated  huge  loans  in  this  country. 
When  America  entered  the  conflict,  a  further  extension  of 
credit  was  granted  by  the  federal  government.  The 
United  States  became  Europe's  creditor  to  the  extent  of 
some  ten  billions  of  dollars. 

Another  effect  of  the  war  was  the  breaking  down  of  the 
mechanism  of  foreign  exchange.  Ordinarily  an  English 
pound  is  worth  about  four  dollars  and  eighty-  Rate  of 
six  cents  in  American  money,  but  for  a  time  its  exchange- 
value  fell  to  considerably  less  than  four  dollars.  The 
French  franc,  ordinarily  worth  twenty  cents,  exchanged 
for  five  cents.  The  rates  of  exchange  for  the  Central 
Powers  were  still  lower.  This  breakdown  of  the  mecha- 
nism of  international  exchange  was  due  not  only  to  the  one- 
way flow  of  goods  from  America  to  Europe,  but  also  to  the 
depreciation  of  European  currency.  Gold  is  the  inter- 
national standard  of  value,  and  America  was  one  of  the 
few  nations  whose  currency  was  actually  maintained  on  a 
gold  basis. 

War-stricken  Europe  for  many  years  to  come  needs 
American  goods  for  reconstruction.     Nevertheless,  a  high 
rate  of  exchange  makes  their  purchase  in  Amer-    xhe 
ica  very  expensive.     Again,  the  method  of  pay- 
ment  is   dubious.     The   United    States   is   flooded    with 


302  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

European  promises  to  pay,  and  a  further  extension  of 
credit  seems  undesirable.  Statesmen  and  students  are  try- 
ing to  decide  how  the  debt  already  in  existence  can  be  paid. 
It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  such  an  enormous  obli- 
gation can  only  be  gradually  repaid  by  a  flow  of  goods  from 
Europe  to  America  in  excess  of  our  exports  to  Europe. 
Business  men,  however,  are  very  anxious  about  the  con- 
tinued effect  of  an  unfavorable  balance  of  trade  upon  our 
native  industries.  When  once  European  nations  are  ready 
to  export,  America  may  anticipate  a  steady  flow  of  foreign 
goods  into  the  country.  The  destruction  of  home  indus- 
tries is  felt  by  many  to  be  a  worse  evil  than  the  possible 
failure  to  collect  the  European  debt.  With  the  Republican 
party  in  power,  however,  a  protective  tariff  seems  assured. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Show  how  payments  are  made  in  international  trade. 

2.  What  is  a  favorable  balance  of  trade?     Is  it   an   unmixed 
blessing? 

3.  Review  the  gains  of  geographical  division  of  labor. 

4.  Show  the  relation  of  free  trade  to  those  advantages. 

5.  Explain  and  criticize  the  infant  industry  argument  for  pro- 
tection. 

6.  Do  the  same  for  the  home  market  argument. 

7.  Does  the  tariff  raise  wages  and  create  additional  employment? 

8.  What  are  the  advantages  to  a  nation  of  being  economically 
self-sufficient  in  peace  times  as  well  as  in  war? 

9.  Show  the  recent  world  tendencies  toward  protection. 

10.  Discuss  protection  in  America  before  the  Civil  War. 

11.  Show  the  effect  of  the  Civil  War  upon  the  tariff. 

12.  Outline  the  course  of  protection  since  that  time. 

13.  Show  the  evil  effects  of  the  tariff  in  politics. 

14.  Explain   the   purpose,    composition,    and   functions   of    the 
Tariff  Commission. 


Regulation  of  International  Trade  303 

15.  Contrast  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  that 
of  England. 

1 6.  Show  the  changes  in  our  foreign  commerce  that  have  taken 
place  between  the  Civil  War  and  the  World  War. 

17.  Enumerate  the  chief  effects  of  the  World  War  upon  our  foreign 
commerce. 

1 8.  What  present  problems  of  international  trade  has  the  World 
War  created? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  mechanism  of  foreign  trade,  e.  g.,  trace  how  a  cotton 
planter  sends  his  goods  to  Liverpool  and  receives  payment  by  draft. 

2.  Make  out  a  complete  case  for  free  trade. 

3.  Make  out  a  case  for  the  tariff,  using  all  possible  arguments 
for  protection. 

4.  The  history  of  protection  before  the  Civil  War. 

5.  The  tariff  since  the  Civil  War. 

6.  Free  trade  in  Great  Britain. 

7.  Protection  and  German  industrial  progress. 

8.  The  World  War  and  the  collapse  of  foreign  exchange  rates. 

9.  The  present  problem  of  foreign  trade. 

10.  The  advantages  of  protection  to  the  United  States. 

REFERENCES 

CLAY,  H.    Economics  for  the  General  Reader.     Chapter  XL 
CUNNINGHAM.     The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Free  Trade. 
ELY,  R.  T.     Outlines  of  Economics.     Chapters  XVII  and  XVIII. 
HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems.    Chapter  VII. 
MARSHALL,  WRIGHT,  and  FIELD.,   Materials  for  the  Study  of  Ele- 
mentary Economics.     Chapters  XII  and  XIII. 
TAUSSIG,  F.  W.     The  Tariff  History  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
NATIONAL  REGULATION  OF  THE  CURRENCY 

I.  The  nature  of  money 

1.  Barter 

2.  Early  forms  of  money 

3.  Characteristics 

4.  Functions  of  money 

5.  Relation  to  prices 

6.  Inflation 

7.  Kinds  of  money  in  the  United  States: 

a.  Metallic 

b.  Paper 

II.  Our  monetary  standard 

1 .  The  gold  standard  in  Europe 

2.  Bimetallism  in  the  United  States 

3.  The  present  gold  standard 
III.  Our  banking  system 

1.  The  National  Bank  Act 

2.  The  Federal  Reserve  Act: 

a.  Provisions 

b.  Operation 

3.  State  institutions 

The  Nature  of  Money. — The  earliest  form  of  com- 
merce is  a  direct  exchange  of  goods  for  goods,  which  is 
known  as  barter.    In  the  absence  of  money,  our 
early  settlers  exchanged  their  knives  and  beads 
for  the  furs  of  the  Indians.    Herodotus  gives  an  interesting 

304 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  305 

description  of  how  the  early  Carthaginian  traders  placed 
their  wares  upon  the  seashore  of  that  strange  land  beyond 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  later  collected  in  exchange 
what  the  natives  had  left  there. 

With  the  growth  of  commerce  the  disadvantages  of  barter 
became  evident.    Some  object  of  general  acceptability  came 
to  be  used  as  a  medium  of  exchange.    In  early 
Virginia  it  was  tobacco.    Tradition  has  it  that   forms  of 

11  r     i        money. 

wives  were  once  secured  by  a  payment  of  the 
cost  of  passage  in  that  commodity.  Wampum  and  pelts 
were  used  by  the  Indians  and  copied  by  the  early  settlers 
as  media  of  exchange.  In  one  part  of  Africa  salt  served 
this  purpose  and,  in  another  part  of  the  same  continent, 
wealth  is  still  measured  in  terms  of  cattle.  Because  of 
their  value  and  durability,  the  precious  metals  have  been 
commonly  accepted  as  money.  In  primitive  societies  the 
metal  is  used  in  bulk.  Thus,  the  gold  dust  of  the  mining 
community  was  exchanged  for  tobacco  and  groceries. 
Shekels,  talents,  pounds,  and  other  early  monetary  units 
were  attempts  to  get  a  standard  measurement  by  weight. 
Minting  became  a  recognized  function  of  the  State,  and 
coins  are  as  old  as  civilization.  The  image  of  Caesar  was 
carried  by  the  commerce  of  Rome  throughout  the  known 
world.  At  first  merely  the  head  of  the  sovereign  was 
stamped  upon  one  side  of  a  flat  disk  of  metal.  In  order  to 
prevent  chipping,  the  other  side  came  to  be  stamped  and 
the  edges  milled.  With  the  development  of  credit,  paper 
money  has  come  to  be  a  most  important  part  of  the  currency. 
The  coinage  of  money  has  become  a  government  monopoly 
in  all  advanced  nations,  because  this  has  been  found  to 
be  the  only  method  of  maintaining  a  stabilized  monetary 
system. 


306  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

In  order  that  a  commodity  may  be  used  successfully  as 
money  it  must  have  general  acceptibility.  Hence,  it  must 
Character-  have  value.  A  bulky  commodity  is  difficult 
istics.  to  carry  m  sufficient  amounts.  With  the  iron 

money  of  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  citizen  was  forced  to  use 
an  ox  cart  in  order  to  pay  a  debt.  Furthermore,  in  deter- 
mining the  availability  of  a  commodity  as  money,  its 
stability  of  value  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Dura- 
bility and  divisibility  are  also  important,  and  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  value  of  the  commodity  used  be  easily  recog- 
nized. Precious  stones  lack  the  latter  characteristics. 

The  two  great  functions  of  money  are  to  serve  (i)  as  a 
medium  of  exchange  and  (2)  as  a  standard  of  value.  Barter 
Functions  rnay  be  unsuccessful  because  neither  trader  may 
of  money.  ^^  the  comrnociities  of  the  other.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  wait  until  two  traders  come  together  with  mutually 
desired  articles.  Such  a  situation  in  the  exchange  of  goods 
can  be  avoided  only  by  the  use  of  some  commonly  accepted 
commodity  of  known  value,  which  also  constitutes  a  med- 
ium of  exchange.  Again,  barter  is  disadvantageous  because 
one  trader  may  not  know  the  value  of  his  goods  in  terms 
of  that  of  the  other's.  Some  commodity,  the  value  of 
which  is  universally  understood,  must  serve  as  the  foot 
rule  of  measurement,  that  is,  as  a  standard  of  value.  Money 
is  such  a  standard  of  value  and  becomes  the  great  common 
denominator  of  wealth. 

It  has  been  observed  that  value  is  "the  power  of  a  good 
to  command  other  goods  in  exchange  for  itself."  Price  is 
Relation  merely  this  value  expressed  in  terms  of  money. 
to.  It  is  the  ratio  between  the  value  of  the  goods 

and  the  value  of  the  monetary  unit.  If  the 
amount  of  money  in  a  country  remains  constant  and 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  307 

if  there  is  an  increased  productivity  of  goods,  prices 
fall,  but,  if,  when  money  remains  constant,  there  is 
decreased  productivity,  prices  rise.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  quantity  of  goods  remains  constant  and  the  quan- 
tity of  money  increases,  prices  rise.  In  America,  at  the 
opening  of  the  twentieth  century,  prices  were  rising.  This 
phenonemen  showed  itself  before  the  World  War  when  the 
production  of  gold  was  going  on  more  rapidly  than  that  of 
other  commodities.  The  war  brought  still  stronger  proof 
to  America  of  the  causal  relationship  between  prices  and 
the  quantity  of  money.  From  July  i,  1914,  to  December 
31,  1918,  the  value  of  gold  imported  into  the  United  States 
amounted  to  a  little  less  than  two  billion  dollars,  while  the 
amount  of  gold  exported  amounted  to  less  than  one  billion 
dollars.  Thus,  our  total  amount  of  gold  was  increased  by 
about  a  billion.  There  was  also  a  tremendous  increase  in 
paper  money  in  the  form  of  Federal  Reserve  notes.  On  the 
other  hand,  vast  quantities  of  goods  were  being  exported 
to  Europe.  If  we  regard  price  as  a  fraction,  the  denominator 
representing  goods  and  the  numerator  money,  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  prices  have  increased.  Early  economists  had 
observed  that,  if  the  quantity  of  money  in  each  man's 
pocket  were  doubled  in  some  miraculous  manner,  no  one 
would  be  the  better  off.  It  would  be  found  that  prices  had 
similarly  doubled. 

During  the  World  War  there  was  everywhere  a  great 
increase  in  paper  money  which  was  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  metallic  base  upon  which  it  rests.  Such  a 

.  .  Inflation. 

situation  is  known  as  inflation.     Hence  there 
was  a  decreased  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar,  the  pound, 
the  franc,  and  the  mark.    The  comparatively  highest  level 
of   prices   was  found  in  those   countries  which   suffered 


308  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

most  from  inflation.  The  issue  of  paper  money  is  a  legiti- 
mate function  of  the  government,  but  such  money  should 
always  be  redeemable  in  gold.  A  parity  should  be  main- 
tained by  the  constant  possibility  of  obtaining  specie 
payment  for  any  paper  or  credit  money  issued.  The  other 
extreme  is  represented  by  fiat  money,  which  rests  entirely 
upon  credit  and  not  upon  a  gold  reserve.  Modern  warfare 
makes  use  of  credit  as  one  of  its  weapons,  and  hence  infla- 
tion is  a  characteristic  of  such  periods.  Sometimes  the  situa- 
tion practically  results  in  fiat  money.  During  the  French 
Revolution  paper  currency,  called  assignats,  was  issued  in 
great  quantities  and  depreciated  in  value.  Our  own  Con- 
tinental currency  gave  rise  to  the  expression  "not  worth  a 
continental."  During  the  Civil  War  the  federal  government 
issued  notes  which  were  promises  to  pay.  The  purchasing 
power  of  these  greenbacks  rose  and  fell  with  the  success  of 
the  Union  army.  It  was  not  until  1879  that  the  resumption 
of  specie  payment  was  effected.  In  our  own  day,  European 
nations  were  forced  to  issue  great  quantities  of  paper  money, 
in  spite  of  their  depletion  of  gold.  Inflation  took  place  in 
some  countries  to  such  an  extent  that  their  currency  was 
hardly  more  than  fiat  money. 

Money  may  be  divided  into  metallic  and  paper.  The 
metallic  money  of  the  United  States  consists  of  gold,  silver. 
Kinds  of  and  subsidiary  coin,  known  as  token  money. 
Unuldin  used  for  makmg  change.  Although  the  gold 
states:  dollar  is  the  monetary  unit,  that  metal  is  coined 
only  in  the  larger  denominations.  There  is  also 
the  silver  dollar  which  is  a  relic  of  the  days  of  bimetallism. 
Subsidiary  coins  consist  of  cents,  nickels,  dimes,  quarters 
and  half-dollars.  The  amount  of  silver  contained  in  token 
money  is  not  equal  to  the  monetary  value  of  the  coin.  A 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  309 

safe  margin  is  allowed  for  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  the 
metal  and  to  prevent  its  being  melted  into  bullion.  The 
alloy  is  made  of  the  harder  and  baser  metals.  Pure  gold 
is  too  soft  to  circulate  indefinitely,  and  precautions  must 
be  made  to  prevent  its  deterioration  by  chipping  or  filing. 

There  are  seven  kinds  of  paper  money  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  first  place,  come  the  gold  and  silver  certificates. 
These  are  statements  that  there  are  so  many  paper 
gold  or  silver  dollars  deposited  in  the  treasury,  money- 
which  the  bearer  can  demand  in  exchange  at  any  time. 
Such  paper  certificates  are  easier  to  carry  than  the  actual 
metallic  money  which  they  represent.  There  are  also  some 
treasury  notes  of  1890  at  present  in  circulation.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  are  the  government  notes  or  greenbacks.  The 
total  Civil  War  issue  of  these  national  promissory  notes, 
which  amounted  to  almost  a  half  billion  dollars,  has  been 
largely  continued  in  circulation.  Bank  notes  are  a  still 
different  kind  of  paper  money  and  include  both  the  National 
Bank  notes  and  two  kinds  of  Federal  Reserve  notes. 

Our  Monetary  Standard. — When  the  new  American 
government  was  established,  the  current  European  bimetal- 
lic system  was  followed.  Since  that  time  _,.  ,. 

J  Ine  gold 

bimetallism    has    been    gradually    abandoned    standard 

;  in  Europe. 

because  of  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  any 
fixed  ratio  between  gold  and  silver.  A  parity  of  value 
could  not  be  permanently  maintained  between  the  two 
metals,  because  the  value  of  silver,  with  respect  to  gold, 
was  constantly  changing.  England  adopted  the  gold 
standard  in  1816.  The  so-called  Latin  Union  of  Europe 
attempted  to  continue  bimetallism  until  1873.  In  the 
meantime  the  production  of  silver  had  so  increased  that 
its  price  was  falling.  Silver  currency  threatened  to  drive 


310  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

out  the  gold  from  those  countries.  Germany  adopted  the 
gold  standard  shortly  after  her  unification  in  1870.  Her 
example  was  followed  by  Austria,  Russia,  and  the  Scandi- 
navian countries.  Outside  Europe  a  similar  development 
was  taking  place,  and  for  a  time  the  United  States  was 
almost  the  only  great  nation  still  holding  to  bimetallism. 

At  the  beginning  of  our  national  existence  gold  had  been 
undervalued  at  the  expense  of  silver.    This  drove  the  for- 
mer metal  out  of  circulation.     In  1834  another 

Bimetallism 

in  united  inaccurate  ratio  was  established  whereby  silver 
was  undervalued  and  displaced  by  the  relatively 
cheaper  gold.  During  the  Civil  War  the  great  flood  of 
greenbacks  drove  out  both  gold  and  silver  and  reduced  the 
nation  to  a  paper  basis.  In  1873  Congress  passed  a  law 
omitting  the  silver  dollar  from  the  list  of  authorized  coins. 
Violent  opposition  was  shown  by  the  silver  miners  and  by 
Congressmen  from  the  silver  states.  In  1878  there  was 
passed  the  Bland- Allison  Act  which  not  only  reintroduced 
the  silver  dollar,  but  required  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
to  purchase  monthly  from  two  to  four  billion  dollars*  worth 
of  silver  bullion  to  be  coined  into  standard  dollars.  New 
mines  continued  to  increase  the  supply  of  silver,  and  its 
value  continued  to  fall.  The  Sherman  Act  of  1890  com- 
pelled the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  purchase  enough 
silver  to  keep  up  the  market  price  to  the  established  ratio 
between  gold  and  silver.  The  purchase  of  the  metal  was 
financed  by  the  issue  of  treasury  notes,  some  of  which  are 
still  an  element  in  our  national  currency.  As  a  result  of 
these  two  laws,  the  federal  government  acquired  a  vast 
hoard  of  silver  bullion  and  silver  dollars.  The  purchase 
clause  of  the  Sherman  Act  was  finally  repealed  in  1893. 
With  the  subsequent  decline  in  the  relative  value  of  silver, 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  311 

a  great  financial  loss  was  threatened.  Some  years  after 
we  had  established  the  gold  standard,  the  actual  silver  in 
the  silver  dollar  was  worth  approximately  seventy-five 
cents.  The  recent  rise  in  the  price  of  silver  during  the 
World  War  has  given  the  silver  in  the  silver  dollar  its 
approximate  face  value. 

Bimetallism  was  made  a  campaign  issue  in  1896  by  the 
Democratic  party  under  the  leadership  of  William  Jennings 
Bryan.     The  Republican  victory  of  McKinley, 
however,  meant  the  adoption  of  the  gold  stand-   present 
ard.    This  was  definitely  accomplished  in  the   f°andard. 
Gold  Standard  Act  of  1900.     The  monetary  unit 
is  the  gold  dollar  which  is  equal  to  23.22  grains  of  pure  gold 
or  25.8  grains  of  gold  nine- tenths  fine.     Silver  is  largely 
coined  for  use  as  token  money,  although  recently  silver 
dollars  have  been  coined.    On  the  other  hand,  there  is  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  gold.     Any  individual  can  take 
this  precious  metal  to  the  mint  and  receive  in  exchange  gold 
coin  of  the  same  value. 

Our  Banking  System. — The  new  American  nation  also 
followed  the  European  custom  of  establishing  a  national 
bank.  Many  years  later  the  opposition  of  J£®ional 
President  Jackson  brought  this  bank  to  an  end  Bank  Act. 
and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  state 
banks.  Great  differences  in  administration  prevailed 
under  this  system,  as  well  as  reckless  and  occasionally  dis- 
honest management.  This  era  of  "wild  cat"  banking 
reflected  itself  in  the  issue  of  irredeemable  notes,  and  in 
frequent  panics,  like  those  of  1837  and  1857,  when  but  few 
banks  could  meet  their  obligations.  The  Civil  War  gave 
us  not  only  a  new  tariff,  but  also  a  new  banking  system. 
The  National  Bank  Act,  passed  in  1863,  placed  a  prohib- 


312  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

itory  tax  upon  the  issue  of  state  bank  notes.  National 
banks  were  chartered,  which  could  issue  national  bank 
notes  secured  by  a  purchase  of  government  bonds.  In  this 
way  the  war  was  financed.  There  were  other  require- 
ments safeguarding  the  interests  of  depositors.  The  law 
marked  a  great  step  forward  in  the  development  of  our 
banking  system,  but  it  sacrificed  to  safety  the  elasticity  of 
the  currency.  The  volume  of  the  currency  of  a  nation 
should  increase  or  decrease  in  proportion  to  its  volume  of 
business,  but  the  act  of  1863  made  no  provision  for  such 
elasticity  of  currency. 

The  lack  of  coordination  between  the  various  national 
banks,  as  well  as  the  inelasticity  of  the  currency,  made  the 
The  National  Bank  Act  inadequate  for  the  needs  of 

Reserve  tne  ^ater  P61™^  °f  commercial  and  industrial 
Act:  expansion.  One  of  the  early  acts  of  the  Wilson 

ms'  administration  was  the  passage  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act  in  1913,  which  strove  to  correct  these  two 
defects.  This  law  created  a  Federal  Reserve  Board,  con- 
sisting of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Comptroller  of 
the  Currency,  and  five  other  competent  men  appointed  by 
the  President.  This  board  is  the  central  coordinating 
authority  by  means  of  which  the  earlier  lack  of  cooperation 
may  be  overcome.  Instead  of  having  one  central  bank  in 
New  York,  as  has  been  suggested,  the  country  is  divided 
into  twelve  districts  in  each  of  which  is  established  a  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Bank.  These  are  carefully  distributed 
throughout  the  entire  nation  as  follows:  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Richmond,  Atlanta,  Cleveland, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis,  Kansas  City,  Dallas,  and 
San  Francisco.  The  capital  of  each  Federal  Reserve  Bank 
is  furnished  by  the  member-banks  of  that  district.  The 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  313 

Federal  Reserve  Banks  are  only  " bankers'  banks,"  that  is, 
they  do  not  make  loans  to  or  accept  deposits. from  indi- 
viduals. Membership  is  compulsory  for  national  banks, 
but  state  banks  may  join  by  subscribing  to  certain  require- 
ments. 


Courtesy  of  National  City  Bank 
THE  TWELVE  FEDERAL  RESERVE  DISTRICTS 

An  attempt  is  made  to  secure  elasticity  of  the  currency 
by  the  issue  of  a  new  form  of  credit  money  known  as  Fed- 
eral Reserve  notes.  These  are  different  from, 

.  Operation. 

and  in  addition  to,  the  national  bank  notes  pro- 
vided for  by  the  National  Bank  Act.  The  issue  of  Federal 
Reserve  notes  is  accomplished  by  what  is  known  as  the 
rediscounting  of  commercial  paper.  A  business  man  may 
write  a  promissory  note,  take  it  to  his  bank  with  sufficient 
collateral  or  security,  and  borrow  money.  If  there  is  a 
great  volume  of  business,  the  banks  are  pressed  by  numer- 
ous similar  demands.  In  such  periods  of  commercial 
activity  more  money  is  needed.  The  Federal  Reserve  Act 


314  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

provides  that  a  member-bank  may  take  the  commercial 
paper,  that  is,  the  promissory  notes,  of  its  customers  to  the 
Federal  Reserve  Bank  and  secure  cash  for  it.  This  cash 
consists  of  Federal  Reserve  notes,  and  the  process  itself  is 
called  the  rediscounting  of  commercial  paper.  By  raising 
or  lowering  the  interest  rate  for  rediscounting  commercial 
paper,  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  can  discourage  or  encour- 
age the  extension  of  credit  and  the  issue  of  paper  currency. 
No  Federal  Reserve  Bank  can  reissue  the  notes  of  another 
such  bank,  but  must  return  them  to  the  original  bank  of 
issue.  Besides  these  Federal  Reserve  notes  there  are 
also  Federal  Reserve  bank  notes.  The  World  War  made 
a  stupendous  test  cf  the  comparatively  new  system. 
The  currency  was  found  to  be  very  elastic  in  that  it  could 
be  rapidly  expanded  with  increased  needs.  It  was  found 
more  difficult,  however,  to  bring  about  a  contraction  of 
credit,  and  the  country  temporarily  suffered  from  infla- 
tion. The  enormous  issue  of  Federal  Reserve  notes  dur- 
ing the  World  War  increased  the  quantity  of  money  and 
raised  materially  the  general  level  of  prices.  Without  the 
extension  of  credit,  however,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the 
war  could  have  been  financed. 

The  national  government  is  supreme  in  matters  of  cur- 
rency.    It  has  the  sole  right  to  coin  money,  paper  or  metal, 

state  in-  and  only  National  and  Federal  Reserve  Banks 
stitutions.  can  issue  notes  Tne  igsue  Qf  paper  or  cre(jit 

money,  however,  is  but  one  banking  function.  Institu- 
tions for  the  purpose  of  receiving  deposits  and  loans  can 
be  chartered  by  the  individual  states.  Each  state  has  a 
number  of  state  banks,  for  the  regulation  and  inspection 
of  which  there  is  a  state  banking  commissioner  or  commis- 
sion. Savings  banks  are  designed  to  attract  the  small 


National  Regulation  of  the  Currency  315 

investor  and  to  receive  money  in  ordinary  amounts.  The 
checking  privileges  are  generally  restricted,  but  a  fair  rate 
of  interest  is  paid.  The  element  of  security  is  not  over- 
looked, for  the  law  generally  limits  the  type  of  investment 
for  which  banks  can  use  saving  funds.  Trust  companies 
are  financial  institutions  which  are  empowered  by  law  to 
do  other  things  in  addition  to  accepting  deposits  and  lend- 
ing money.  Real  estate,  as  well  as  securities,  may  be 
bought  and  sold.  The  estates  of  deceased  people  may  be 
cared  for  and  the  property  managed  for  the  heirs.  Indeed, 
trust  companies  are  performing  a  large  amount  of  admin- 
istrative work  formerly  undertaken  by  the  legal  profession. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  and  illustrate  barter.     Show  its  disadvantages. 

2.  Trace  the  evolution  of  money. 

3.  What  qualities  are  necessary  for  a  commodity  to  serve  as 
money? 

4.  Explain  carefully  the  functions  of  money.     Define  terms  used. 

5.  Define  value  and  price. 

6.  Show  the  relation  of  the  quantity  of  money  to  prices.     Give 
proof. 

7.  Define  specie  payment,  fiat  money,  and  inflation. 

8.  Illustrate  inflation  and  show  its  relation  to  prices. 

9.  Name  the  kinds  of  money  used  in  the  United  States. 

10.  Briefly  explain  the  different  kinds  of  paper  money. 

11.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  gold  standard. 

12.  Just  what  is  the  monetary  unit  in  the  United  States  by  which 
prices  are  measured? 

13.  What  were  the  difficulties  of  bimetallism? 

14.  What  were  the  main  accomplishments  of  the  National  Banking 
Act? 

15.  What  were  the  main  objects  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Act? 

1 6.  Sketch  the  organization  of  the  system. 


316  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

17.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  elasticity  of  currency  and  show  how 
it  is  secured  in  the  United  States. 

1 8.  Differentiate  between  banks  of  issue  and  banks  of  deposit. 

19.  What  control  do  the  states  have  in  the  matter  of  banking? 

20.  Outline  the  chief  kinds  of  banking  institutions  and  their 
differences. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  early  history  of  the  National  Bank. 

2.  National  banks  of  Europe. 

3.  The  greenbacks  and  the  resumption  of  specie  puvrm-nt. 

4.  The  general  consequences  of  fiat  money. 

5.  Bimetallism  in  the  United  States  and  abroad. 

6.  The  "wild  cat"  banks  of  the  middle  of  the  century. 

7.  The  evolution  of  the  gold  standard. 

8.  The  Federal  Reserve  System  during  the  World  War. 

9.  Liberty  bonds  and  the  inflation  of  the  currency. 
10.  The  present  state  of  the  currency. 

REFERENCES 

BULLOCK,  C.  J.    Essays  in  the  Monetary  History  of  the  United  States. 
CLAY,  H.    Economics  for  the  General  Reader.     Chapters  IX  and  X. 
FISHER,  I.     The  Purchasing  Power  of  Money. 
FISHER,  I.    Stabilizing  the  Dollar. 

MARSHALL,  WRIGHT  and  FIELD.     Materials  for  the  Study  of  Ele- 
mentary Economics.     Chapters  X  and  XI. 
SCOTT,  W.  A.     Money  and  Banking. 
TAUSSIG,  F.  W.    Principles  of  Economics.    Book  III. 
WHITE,  H.    Money  and  Banking. 
WILLIS,  H.  P.     The  Federal  Reserve  System. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

MEETING  THE  INCREASING  COST  or  GOVERNMENT 

I.  General  considerations 

1 .  Importance  of  taxation 

2.  The  increased  burden 

3.  Kinds  of  taxes 

4.  Principles  of  apportionment: 

a.  Benefits  received 

b.  Ability  to  pay 

c.  Other  considerations 
II.  Federal  taxation 

1.  National  expenditures 

2.  Sources  of  national  revenue 

3.  The  tariff 

4.  Excise  duties 

5.  The  income  tax 

6.  The  excess  profits  tax 

III.  State  and  local  taxation 

1.  Sources  of  state  revenue 

2.  Local  sources  of  revenue 

3.  The  general  property  tax 

IV.  The  inheritance  tax 

1 .  Its  nature 

2.  Its  social  significance 

General  Considerations. — Taxation  is  a  matter  of 
vital  concern  to  the  industrial  and  financial  life  of  a  people, 
importance  A  change  in  the  tariff  rate,  for  illustration,  may 

of  taxation.     mean  ^  jy  fi  Qr  death  Q£  an  m(Justry,  with  its 

resulting  social  effects.     Early  in  our  national  history,  a 

317 


3 1 8  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

Supreme  Court  decision  declared  that  the  power  to  tax  is 
the  power  to  destroy.  We  have  seen  how  the  National 
Bank  Act  prevented  state  banks  from  issuing  notes  by  the 
simple  device  of  putting  a  prohibitory  tax  upon  such  issues. 
The  average  citizen  realizes  that  whatever  else  the  govern- 
ment is,  it  is  surely  the  power  which  taxes.  A  tax  may 
be  denned  as  a  compulsory  payment  made  by  an  individual 
for  the  support  of  the  government. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  the  burden  of 
taxation  has  been  rapidly  increasing.  This  has  been  due  to 
Th  the  increasing  functions  of  government,  which 

increased      the  taxpayer  is  often  apt  to  overlook.    Although 

burden.  . 

the  toll  gate  is  disappearing,  the  various  states 
are  vying  with  each  other  in  the  building  of  great  state 
highways.  Cities  have  created  expensive  departments  of 
public  health  and  safety  to  protect  the  lives  and  property 
of  the  citizens.  We  have  seen  the  increasing  activities  of 
the  national  government  in  the  matters  of  commerce  and 
industry.  Service  is  a  new  ideal  in  government,  and  cooper- 
ative ventures  cost  money.  Finally,  there  is  the  enormous 
burden  of  war.  Modern  civilization  seems  to  have  brought 
with  it  more  costly  methods  and  instruments  of  destruction. 
At  the  present  time,  about  nine-tenths  of  all  the  expendi- 
tures of  national  government  go  for  wars,  past,  present  and 
future. 

There  are  many  ways  of  classifying  taxes,  most  of  which 
overlap.  In  the  first  place,  taxes  may  be  classified  according 
Kinds  of  to  the  unit  of  government  concerned.  Thus, 

there  are  local,  state,  and  national  taxes.  Each 
of  these  will  be  considered  in  turn.  In  the  second  place 
taxes  may  be  classified  as  direct  and  indirect.  A  direct  tax 
cannot  be  shifted,  that  is,  paid  by  some  one  else.  An 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         319 

illustration  of  this  principle  is  the  income  tax.  The  tariff, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  an  indirect  tax  and  can  be  shifted. 
The  importer  merely  adds  the  tax  to  the  cost  of  the  imported 
article,  and  it  is  finally  paid  by  the  consumer.  It  must 
not  be  imagined,  however,  that  the  final  burden  of  a  tax 
can  be  so  easily  determined.  The  incidence  of  taxation  is 
an  extremely  difficult  and  involved  problem.  A  third  and 
common  method  of  classifying  taxes  is  based  upon  the  nature 
of  the  objects  taxed.  Thus,  we  speak  of  an  income,  inher- 
itance, or  sales  tax.  Finally,  attempts  have  been  made  to 
classify  taxes  according  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
imposed.  At  one  extreme  is  a  fee  or  license  tax,  in  which 
case  the  benefit  derived  is  considered  so  personal  that  only 
the  person  or  persons  concerned  pay  the  tax.  Illustrations 
of  such  taxes  are  the  automobile  and  marriage  license  fees. 
At  the  other  extreme  are  those  general  services,  such  as 
protection  of  property,  which  government  guarantees  to  all 
individuals.  Between  these  two  extremes  are  various 
degrees  of  services  for  which  the  individual  so  taxed  may 
or  may  not  receive  direct  benefit.  For  example,  the  prop- 
erty owner  pays  a  school  tax,  although  he  may  have  no 
children  in  school.  The  theory  is  that  education  is  a 
public  duty  and  benefit,  for  which  all  must  pay. 

Is  there  any  "rhyme  or  reason"  in  our  system  of  taxation, 
or  has  it  just  grown  up  like  Topsy?    There  are  many  phil- 
osophies of  taxation,  only  two  of  which  may 
be  mentioned  here.    In  the  first  place,  there  are 


those  who  favor  the  apportionment  of  taxes  upon    tionment  : 
the  basis  of  benefits  received.    The  toll  system   received. 
might  be  used  as  an  illustration.    Those  who 
use  the  roads  must  pay  for  their  maintenance.  Other  writers 
state  this  principle  in  terms  of  the  special  privilege  theory. 


320  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Thus,  the  single  taxer  regards  the  ownership  of  land  as  a 
special  privilege  and  would  tax  all  land  owners  according 
to  the  value  of  the  natural  resources  held,  that  is,  according 
to  the  special  benefits  received.  Most  writers  on  taxation 
however,  accept  the  ability  to  pay  theory,  which  disregards 
the  actual  relation  between  the  amount  of  the  tax  paid  and 
the  degree  of  benefit  derived  therefrom. 

For  example,  certain  privileges  are  enjoyed  by  all  Amer- 
icans, regardless  of  the  degree  to  which  they  contribute 
Ability  to  the  support  of  government.  Of  such  a  char- 
to  *ay'  acter  are  public  education  and  the  police  power 
of  the  State.  The  cost  of  such  public  functions  must  be 
paid  by  all.  The  fairest  method  of  apportionment  of  this 
taxation  among  the  citizens  seems  to  be  according  to  their 
ability  to  pay.  This  may  be  measured  in  various  ways, 
for  example,  by  income,  wealth,  or  the  consumption  of 
economic  goods.  Hence,  we  have  respectively  the  income, 
the  general  property,  and  the  consumption  taxes.  The 
poll  tax  is  contrary  to  this  theory,  for  it  imposes  a  small, 
but  flat,  tax  upon  all  voters  who  are  not  property  owners. 
When  also  the  government  supplies  some  service  or  com- 
modity like  that  rendered  by  a  public  service  corporation, 
the  benefit  theory  is  generally  put  into  practice.  Thus, 
the  water  tax  is  an  appropriate  measure  of  the  individual 
benefit  received  through  the  consumption  of  water. 

Adam  Smith  has  given  us  four  maxims  of  taxation  which 
are  still  applicable.  In  the  first  place,  citizens  should 
contribute  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  general  expenses  in 
other  con-  proportion  to  their  ability  to  pay.  Secondly, 

siderations.        ^  taxeg  wfach  each  ^dividual  must  pay  should 

be  certain,  not  arbitrary;  while  the  time  and  manner  of 
payment  should  be  clear  and  definite.  In  the  third  place, 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         321 

every  tax  should  be  levied  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner 
most  convenient  for  the  contributor  to  pay.  Finally,  no 
tax  should  be  imposed  which  is  incapable  of  an  economic 
administration.  When  Lord  Grenville  came  into  the  Brit- 
ish cabinet,  he  discovered  that  it  was  costing  the  govern- 
ment more  to  enforce  certain  revenue  acts  in  the  colonies 
than  they  were  actually  bringing  in.  Before  the  days  of 
the  great  revolution,  France  was  not  carrying  a  load 
of  taxation  greater  than  she  could  bear;  but  the  taxes  were 
unscientifically  distributed  and  administered.  All  of  the 
above  four  maxims  were  being  ignored.  A  last  principle  of 
taxation  is  that  of  progression.  This  was  explained  by 
Manu,  the  Indian  sage,  three  thousand  years  before  the 
time  of  Adam  Smith.  According  to  this  principle  not  only 
should  the  amount  of  taxes  increase  with  the  increase  of 
income,  but  also  the  percentage  of  rate  should  be  advanced. 
The  principle  of  progression  is  illustrated  in  both  our  income 
and  inheritance  taxation  laws. 

Federal  Taxation. — Before  our  entrance  into  the  World 
War  federal  expenditures  were  averaging  annually  about 
a  half  billion  dollars.  In  1917,  national  expen-  National 

ditures  jumped  to  over  a  billion  dollars.     In    expendi- 
tures. 
1918  and  1919  they  were,  respectively,  eight  and 

fourteen  billion  dollars.  Such  enormous  sums  as  were 
necessary  for  conducting  the  war  could  not  be  met  entirely 
by  taxation.  The  excess  of  expenditures  over  revenues 
for  those  years  was  provided  for  by  the  issue  of  liberty 
and  victory  bonds.  The  United  States  incurred  an  unprec- 
edented national  debt.  The  receipts  from  taxation  for 
1918  and  1919  were,  respectively,  a  little  under  and  a  little 
over  four  billion  dollars.  In  1920  the  national  expendi- 
tures were  about  four  and  a  half  billion  dollars,  while  the 


322  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

total  receipts  from  taxation  for  the  same  year  were  a  little 
over  five  and  a  half  billion  dollars.  Thus,  there  was  a  sur- 
plus and  the  great  work  of  paying  for  the  war  had  begun. 
But,  in  spite  of  popular  agitation,  it  will  be  found  impos- 
sible to  return  in  the  near  future  to  the  prewar  level  of 
federal  taxation. 

This  enormous  revenue  was  provided  by  creating  new 
taxes  as  well  as  by  raising  the  rates  of  the  old  ones.  The 
Sources  of  receipts  ^rom  tne  excise  taxes  were  raised,  from 
national  a  third,  to  over  half  a  billion  dollars.  With  the 
advent  of  prohibition,  however,  there  was  a 
sharp  decline  in  this  revenue,  while  the  tariff  failed  to  help 
finance  the  war  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  most 
powerful  revenue  producers  were  found  in  the  income  tax 
and  in  the  excess  profits  tax.  Returns  from  these  sources 
jumped,  from  a  third  of  a  billion  dollars  in  1917,  to  almost 
three  billion  dollars  in  1918  and  1919.  In  1920  the  com- 
bined income  and  excess  profits  taxes  yielded  almost  four 
billion  dollars.  War  taxes  were  also  placed  upon  com- 
munication and  upon  luxuries,  which  in  1920  aggregated, 
respectively,  a  third  and  a  quarter  of  a  billion  dollars.  In 
1917  a  federal  inheritance  tax  was  passed,  which  yielded 
a  hundred  million  dollars  in  1920.  Other  sources  of 
national  income  were  found  in  taxes  upon  the  capital  stock 
of  corporations,  upon  legal  documents,  and  upon  admis- 
sion to  amusements.  In  1920  these  combined  sources  of 
revenue  furnished  a  quarter  of  a  billion  dollars. 

We  have  seen  that  the  tariff  is  a  problem  of  the  national 
government,  for  the  Constitution  gives  Congress  control 

The  tariff      °ver  mterstate  an(^  foreign  commerce.     It  is 

specifically  forbidden,  however,  to  lay  any  tax 

upon  exports.     Duties  on  imported  goods  may  be  either 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         323 

specific  or  ad  valorem,  according  as  to  whether  they  are 
taxed  by  bulk  or  by  value.  Before  the  World  War  the 
tariff  was  a  very  important  source  of  national  revenue, 
yielding  about  half  the  total  receipts  of  the  government 
from  1910  to  1914.  With  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  foreign 
imports  began  to  increase,  and  the  tariff  may  again  yield 
considerable  revenue.  It  is  unlikely,  however,  that  it  will 
soon  regain  its  comparative  importance  as  a  source  of 
taxation.  In  1920  it  yielded  about  one- twentieth  of  the 
total  federal  income.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  the 
principle  of  protection  and  the  principle  of  revenue  may 
come  into  conflict  in  a  given  tariff.  Rates  may  be  made 
sufficiently  high  to  check  the  importation  of  foreign  goods, 
and  revenue  may  therefore  decline.  England  has  found 
that  the  best  revenue  producers  are  duties  imposed  upon 
necessities,  such  as  tea  and  sugar,  which  are  produced 
outside  the  country. 

An  excise  is  a  tax  laid  upon  articles  consumed,  sold, 
or  manufactured  within  a  nation.     Hence  the  term  internal 
revenue  is  applied  to  such  taxation.     The  com- 
modities generally  so  taxed  are  liquors,  in  cer-   duties, 
tain    countries,    tobacco,    and    other    luxuries. 
Napoleon  once  remarked  that  evils  had  broad  backs.     The 
taxation  of  luxuries  may  be  planned  so  as  to  discourage 
their  consumption   as   well   as   to   provide  revenue.     In 
addition  to  these  three  groups  of  commodities,  a  number 
of  miscellaneous  articles,  such  as  oleomargarine  and  filled 
cheese,  have  been  subject  to  such  a  tax.     During  the  War, 
the  number  of  articles  so  taxed,  as  well  as  the  rates  upon 
them,  were  greatly  increased. 

The  Constitution  originally  provided  that  direct  taxes 
should  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  according 


3  24  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

to  population.  In  1894  Congress  passed  an  income  tax  law, 
which  was  later  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme 
The  in-  Court.  An  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
come  tax.  ratified  in  1913,  now  legalizes  the  income  tax 
in  this  country.  The  1913  act  of  Congress  placed  a  tax 
of  one  per  cent  on  the  incomes  of  single  people  in  excess 
of  three  thousand  dollars,  and  of  married  people  in  excess  of 
four  thousand  dollars.  Moderate  surtaxes  of  from  one  to 
six  per  cent  were  placed  upon  incomes  of  over  twenty 
thousand  dollars.  In  1919  the  limits  of  exemption  were 
placed  at  one  thousand  dollars  for  single  persons  and  two 
thousand  dollars  for  married  people,  with  an  additional 
exemption  of  two  hundred  dollars  for  every  child.  The 
normal  rate  was  raised  to  six  per  cent  upon  the  first  four 
thousand  dollars  of  taxable  income,  and  to  twelve  per  cent 
upon  the  excess  above  that  amount.  Surtaxes  were  made 
to  apply  to  incomes  in  excess  of  five  thousand  dollars, 
and  ranged  from  one  to  sixty-five  per  cent.  The  Act 
of  1921  provided  for  a  reduction  of  these  rates  as  well  as 
for  an  increase  in  exemptions.  The  limits  of  exemptions 
were  placed  at  twenty-five  hundred  dollars  for  married  men 
and  heads  of  families  having  a  net  income  of  five  thousand 
dollars  or  less,  with  an  exemption  of  four  hundred  dollars 
for  each  dependent  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  The 
normal  rate  of  tax  was  four  per  cent  on  the  first  four 
thousand  dollars  of  taxable  income,  and  eight  per  cent  on 
the  excess  above  that  amount.  The  surtax,  applicable  to 
net  incomes  above  six  thousand  dollars,  was  lowered  so 
that  it  ranged  from  one  to  fifty  per  cent.  The  tax  on  cor- 
poration earnings  was  increased  from  ten  to  twelve  and 
one-half  per  cent,  while  the  maximum  rates  on  estate  taxes 
remained  unchanged. 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         3  25 

The  inflation  of  the  War  helped  cause  high  profits  as 
well  as  high  prices.  Certain  industrial  corporations  were 
able  to  pay  huge  dividends  and  a  large  number  The  excess 
of  individual  fortunes  were  made.  America  fol-  profits  tax- 
lowed  Europe's  example  and  eagerly  seized  upon  this  new 
source  of  taxation.  Therefore  an  excess  profits  tax  was 
levied  in  1917,  and  revised  in  1919.  Taxation  was  levied 
at  the  rate  of  twenty  per  cent  upon  all  profits  in  excess  of 
eight  per  cent  of  the  invested  capital,  and  at  the  rate  of 
forty  per  cent  on  profits  exceeding  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
invested  capital.  The  combined  income  and  excess  profits 
taxes  produced  three-fifths  of  all  the  national  income  dur- 
ing war  times.  With  the  advent  of  peace  and  economic 
reconstruction,  came  falling  prices  and  falling  profits. 
Excess  profits,  therefore,  dwindled  as  a  source  of  taxation. 
Consequently  the  Act  of  1921  repealed  the  excess  profits 
tax,  as  well  as  the  transportation  and  so-called  nuisance 
taxes. 

State    and   Local    Taxation. — Most   states    are   not 
entirely  dependent  upon  taxation  as  their  sole  source  of 
revenue.     Highway  rents,  department  fees,  and    Sources 
similar  items  help  pay  for  the  performance  of  a    of  state 

revenue. 

number  of  public  functions.  Again,  in  some 
states  the  public  lands  have  been  a  considerable  source  of 
revenue.  Nevertheless,  in  1919,  the  aggregate  revenues  of 
all  the  states  showed  that  four-fifths  of  the  total  revenue 
was  secured  by  taxation.  Of  all  the  sources  of  taxation, 
the  general  property  tax  was  the  most  fruitful.  In  1919 
it  yielded  forty-five  per  cent  of  the  aggregate  taxation 
receipts  of  the  individual  states.  The  special  property 
taxes,  including  those  upon  corporation  stock  and  inheri- 
tances, yielded  about  twenty  per  cent.  Insurance  and  other 


326  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

corporations  yielded  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  total  income 
from  taxation,  and  licenses  upon  business  and  other  sources 
gave  almost  another  fifteen  per  cent. 

A  study  of  municipal  receipts  also  discloses  taxation  as 

the  chief  source  of  revenue.     Although  a  number  of  cities 

receive  income  from  the  sale  of  franchises,  the 

sources  of     earnings    of    public    service    corporations    and 

revenue. 

special  assessments,  taxation  proper  was  found 
in  1918  to  yield  about  seventy  per  cent  of  all  the  revenue. 
While  the  city  may  have  its  own  licenses  and  other  business 
taxes  of  a  minor  nature,  the  general  property  tax  furnishes 
about  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  total  revenue.  The 
smaller  units  of  local  government,  such  as  the  township 
and  village,  show  a  similar  dependence  upon  the  general 
property  tax.  The  same  is  true  of  the  county,  which  is  an 
administrative  unit  of  the  state.  The  fact  that  the  general 
property  tax  appears  in  both  the  state  and  the  local  rev- 
enues means  that  the  receipts  from  this  tax  are  generally 
divided  between  the  two  units  of  government.  The  actual 
assessment  and  collection  may  be  done  by  either  the  state 
or  the  local  officers  of  government. 

The  general  property  tax,  which  is  not  used  by  the 
federal  government,  is  thus  the  chief  source  of  revenue 

The  general    ^OF  t^1C  ^OCa*  ailC*  StatC  g°vernments.      It  includes 

property  a  tax  upon  both  real  and  personal  property. 
Real  property  such  as  land  cannot  be  concealed, 
but  personal  property  frequently  can  be.  The  efficacy  of 
the  general  property  tax  is  frequently  called  into  question 
because  of  the  ease  with  which  owners  of  securities  can 
evade  the  payment  of  this  tax.  There  are  three  steps  in 
the  administration  of  the  general  property  tax — the  assess- 
ment, the  fixing  of  the  rate,  and  the  actual  collection  of  the 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         327 

tax.  The  governing  body  determines  what  the  rate  of 
taxation  shall  be,  as,  for  illustration,  two  dollars  a  year 
upon  each  hundred  dollars  worth  of  property.  There  is  a 
body  of  men  known  as  assessors  who  appraise  or  determine 
the  value  of  each  piece  of  property.  In  order  that  the 
owner  may  suffer  no  injustice  occasioned  by  a  sudden  fall 
in  values,  the  assessment  value  is  frequently  placed  at  about 
only  eighty  or  ninety  per  cent  of  the  actual  market  value. 

The  Inheritance  Tax.— The  inheritance  taxes  or  death 
duties  have  become  of  considerable  importance  within  the 
last  thirty  years  both  abroad  and  in  America. 
Since  1916  the  United  States  has  had  a  national 
inheritance  tax,  the  rates  of  which  were  increased  as  the 
War  progressed.  In  addition,  a  number  of  the  individual 
states  have  their  own  inheritance  taxes.  The  rates  and 
other  provisions  vary  greatly  in  the  different  common- 
wealths. The  principle  of  progression,  however,  is  com- 
mon to  most  of  them.  Large  inheritances  not  only  pay 
more  than  small  inheritances,  but  the  rate  increases  with 
the  size  of  the  estate.  Again,  a  distinction  is  generally 
made  between  direct  and  collateral  heirs.  It  is  regarded  as 
unfair  to  tax  the  inheritance  of  the  children  to  as  great  an 
extent  as  the  inheritance  of  more  distant  relatives  of  the 
deceased.  Although  there  are  possibilities  of  evasion,  this 
tax  provides  administrative  advantages.  Moreover,  it  is 
contended  that  a  tax  upon  legacies  imposes  no  excessive 
hardship  upon  the  fortunate  recipient  of  the  estate. 

By  some  writers  the  inheritance  tax  is  regarded  as  a 
direct  attack  upon  the  rights  of  private  property.     They 
believe  that  the  State  should  not  attempt  to  its  social 
limit  the  extent  to  which  an  individual  may  Slgnif 
bequeath  his  own  possessions.     On  the  other  hand,  thf* 


328  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

inheritance  tax  is  regarded  by  another  school  of  thinkers 
as  a  great  democratic  advance,  which  forces  each  genera- 
tion to  stand  upon  its  own  feet.  Equality  of  opportunity 
means  the  ability  of  each  individual  to  advance  to  the  best 
of  his  natural  capacity.  It  is  contended  that  the  inheri- 
tance of  colossal  wealth  gives  to  certain  fortunate  indi- 
viduals too  great  a  start  in  the  race  of  life.  To  that  extent 
they  are  sheltered  from  economic  competition  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  In  this  manner  there  is  lessened  the  oper- 
ation of  the  principle  of  natural  selection,  which  seeks  to 
place  the  most  naturally  competent  leaders  in  responsible 
positions.  The  adherents  of  this  school,  therefore,  favor 
the  imposition  of  inheritance  taxes  in  order  that  the  ine- 
qualities of  past  ages  may  not  become  increasingly  greater 
with  each  generation.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  they  do  not  advocate  complete  confiscation  of  the 
stored-up  wealth  of  every  generation. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  has  the  burden  of  taxation  increased  for  the  nation? 

2.  For  the  state  and  local  government? 

3.  Explain  several  methods  of  classifying  taxes. 

4.  Contrast  the  ability  to  pay  theory  with  the  benefit  received 
theory  of  taxation. 

5.  Explain  the  principle  of  progression. 

6.  What  were  Adam  Smith's  maxims  of  taxation? 

7.  Show  the  increase  of  federal  expenditure  due  to  the  World  Wu  r. 

8.  Show  the  increased  federal  revenue  and  its  sources. 

9.  Contrast  the  relative  importance  of  the  tariff  as  a  source  of 
revenue  to-day  with  its  importance  a  decade  ago. 

10.  Show  how   the  principles   of   protection  and  revenue  may 
conflict. 

11.  What  are  excise  duties?    What  are  the  principal  objects  of 
this  kind  of  taxation? 


Meeting  the  Increasing  Cost  of  Government         329 

12.  Trace  the  evolution  of  the  income  tax  in  the  United  States. 

13.  Explain  the  provisions  of  the  income  tax  of  1919.    Of  1921. 

14.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  for  the  states? 

15.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  for  the  cities? 

1 6.  Discuss  the  administration  of  the  general  property  tax. 

17.  What  arguments  have  been  advanced  for  the  inheritance  tax? 

1 8.  Do  you  think  such  a  tax  fair?    Why  or  why  not? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Changes  in  taxation  in  the  United  States  since  1913. 

2.  The  principle  of  progression  as  illustrated  by  surtax  rates. 

3.  The  present  income  tax  law  of  the  United  States. 

4.  Income  taxes  abroad. 

5.  History  of  the  excess  profits  tax. 

6.  Inheritance  taxes  at  home  and  abroad. 

7.  The  defects  of  the  general  property  tax. 

8.  Fixing  the  local  tax  rate  and  the  assessing  of  properties  in 
your  community. 

9.  Disarmament  and  taxation. 

10.  New  sources  of  taxation  for  municipalities. 

REFERENCES 

ADAMS,  H.  C.    Science  of  Finance. 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 

May,  1921. 

BULLOCK,  C.  J.    Selected  Readings  in  Public  Finance. 
ELY,  R.  T.     Taxation  in  American  States  and  Cities. 
HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems. 
PLEHN,  C.    Introduction  to  a  Study  of  Public  Finance. 
SELIGMAN,  E.  R.  A.    Essays  in  Taxation;  The  Income  Tax. 
TAUSSIG,  F.  W.    Principles  of  Economics.    Book  VIII. 
WEST,  M.     The  Inheritance  Tax.     Chapters  VII  and  IX. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  INCOME 

I.  The  general  process 

1.  Meaning  of  distribution 

2.  Production  and  distribution 

3.  The  law  of  variable  proportions 
II.  The  shares  in  distribution 

1.  Rent 

2.  Interest: 

a.  The  demand  for  capital 

b.  The  supply  of  capital 

3.  Profits 

4.  Wages: 

a.  Causes  of  differences 

b.  Different  labor  groups 

c.  Explanation  of  differences 

d.  Differences  within  the  group 

5.  Earned  and  unearned  incomes 

The  General  Process. — The  national  income  may  be 
regarded  as  a  flow  of  goods,  representing  wealth  produced 
Meaning  ^  a  nati°n  *n  a  given  time.  A  considerable 
button*1'  Porti°n  of  this  income  finds  its  way  into  the 
hands  of  the  government  in  the  form  of  taxes. 
Money  is  the  mere  medium  of  exchange.  What  the  various 
governments  desire  is  not  the  currency,  but  economic  goods, 
such  as  armaments,  roads,  and  school  houses.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  the  national  income  goes  for  providing  for 

330 


The  Distribution  of  the  National  Income  331 

the  national  defence  and  for  other  cooperative  activities  of 
government.  After  the  taxes  have  been  deducted,  the 
remainder  of  the  national  income  is  enjoyed  by  the  citizens 
of  the  nation.  This  also  takes  the  form  of  a  flow  of  goods, 
for  which  the  money  income  has  been  spent.  It  is  an  obvious 
fact  that  this  stream,  which  we  call  the  national  income, 
divides  itself  into  branches  of  different  sizes.  To  some 
individuals,  it  brings  automobiles  and  fine  clothing,  while 
to  others  only  the  barest  necessities  of  life.  Later  we  shall 
discuss  the  extent  of  these  differences  in  incomes  and  the 
resulting  standards  of  living.  At  present  we  are  attempt- 
ing merely  to  see  how  the  system  operates  and  to  get  a  bird's 
eye  view  of  the  process  of  distribution. 

There  are  two  primary  factors  in  production,  land  and 
labor.  Originally  wealth  was  created  by  the  direct  appli- 
cation of  labor  to  land.  With  the  development  , 

Production 

of  industry,  a  secondary  factor  known  as  capital  and  distri- 
came  into  existence.  This  has  been  defined  as 
the  product  of  past  labor  used  for  further  production,  and 
it  is  represented  by  such  forms  of  wealth  as  tools  and  machin- 
ery. It  is  to  be  contrasted  with  what  may  be  called  con- 
sumption goods,  that  is,  wealth  ready  for  immediate  enjoy- 
ment in  the  form  of  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessities, 
comforts,  and  luxuries  of  life.  A  final  factor  in  production 
is  business  enterprise  which  brings  together  the  three  factors 
in  production.  Each  of  these  factors  gets  some  share  in  the 
distribution  of  the  wealth  which  it  has  helped  to  produce. 
The  share  going  to  labor  is  known  as  wages,  that  to  land, 
as  rent.  Business  enterprisers  receive  profits,  and  the 
owners  of  capital  interest. 

In  chemistry  the  elements  combine  in  some  fixed  pro- 
portions. Thus,  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  one  of  sulphur, 


332  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

and  four  of  oxygen  unite  to  form  a  molecule  of  sulphuric 
acid.    The  various  elements  in  economic  production,  such 

Law  of          as  ^anc*>  lab°r>  anc*  capita-l>  mav  be  combined  in 
variable        varying  proportions.    For  any  known  time  or 

proportions.  *  . 

conditions  there  may  be  a  given  but  temporary 
ratio,  which  will  give  the  maximum  production.  This  ratio 
cannot  be  permanent,  however,  for  conditions  of  supply 
and  demand  are  constantly  changing.  In  our  early  history 
land  was  abundant  and  labor  scarce.  Hence,  rents  were 
low  and  in  some  cases  non-existent,  while  wages  were  high. 
Agriculture  was  therefore  developed  extensively  rather  than 
intensively.  In  Europe,  on  the  other  hand,  the  production 
of  food  was  characterized  by  a  combination  of  relatively  less 
land  and  more  labor.  Under  conditions  of  free  competition, 
the  scarcity  of  any  factor  of  production,  in  proportion  to 
the  need  for  it,  determines  its  relative  share  of  the  national 
income.  Thus,  in  a  new  country,  rent  is  generally  low, 
while  wages  and  interest  rates  are  higher  than  in  older  lands. 
The  law  of  variable  proportions  may  also  be  illustrated  by 
combinations  of  labor  and  capital.  It  is  frequently  possible 
to  substitute  machinery  for  certain  types  of  labor  performed 
by  hand.  If  wages  are  high  and  the  interest  rate  low,  this 
substitution  is  more  apt  to  be  made  than  if  the  reverse  is 
true.  The  value  in  exchange  of  any  commodity  is  determined 
by  conditions  of  supply  and  demand.  In  a  similar  way, 
one  school  of  economists  has  attempted  to  explain  the 
process  of  distribution.  The  apportionment  of  the  national 
income  among  the  various  factors  in  production  depends 
theoretically  upon  their  relative  abundance  and  produc- 
tivity. Thus,  the  rate  of  wages,  interest,  or  rent  is  a  measure 
of  the  supply  of  labor,  capital,  or  land  in  proportion  to  the 
demand  for  each  of  these  factors. 


The  Distribution  of  the  National  Income  333 

The  Shares  in  Distribution.— Rent  is  the  share  of  the 
national  income  which  goes  to  the  owners  of  land  for  its 
share  in  the  production  of  wealth.  There  is  a 
scarcity  element  in  rent,  because,  where  natural 
resources  are  abundant  in  proportion  to  the  population, 
rent  is  low.  Where  the  reverse  is  true,  rents  are  high.  Rent 
is  primarily  due,  however,  to  differences  in  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  various  lands.  Nature  has  given  of  her 
fertility  in  varying  degrees  to  different  pieces  of  land.  If 
one  acre  of  land  will  yield,  to  the  same  expenditure  of  labor 
and  capital,  twenty  dollars'  worth  more  of  wheat  in  a  year 
than  another  acre  similarly  located,  it  will  yield  twenty 
dollars'  more  rent  to  its  owners.  The  varying  rent  of  mines 
is  a  similar  rough  measure  of  their  different  degrees  of 
productivity.  With  urban  land  the  determining  feature  is 
site  value.  A  plot  of  ground  upon  Wall  Street  will  bring 
more  rent  than  the  same  size  piece  of  ground  located  some 
distance  from  the  financial  center. 

The  indirect  or  roundabout  method  of  producing  wealth 
is  to  create  capital  first,  and  then  by  the  aid  of  such  capital 
to  make  the  finished  goods.    Land,  labor,  and    jnteregt. 
capital  working  together  have  been  found  to  be   The  demand 
far  more  effective  than  the  old  method  of  apply- 
ing labor  directly  to  land.    The  effort,  time,  and  material 
spent  in  the  making  of  capital  have  been  found  well  worth 
while.    The  Industrial  Revolution  intensified  the  capitalis- 
tic process.    Goods  were  no  longer  made  by  hand,  but  by 
machinery.     Capital  came  to  play  a  more  important  r61e 
in  production  than  ever  before.    To-day  any  business  man 
will  admit  that  capital  is  productive.    Let  us  take,  for  ex- 
ample, the  case  of  a  tailor  who  has  been  pressing  clothes  by 
hand,  but  finally  decides  to  install  a  pressing  machine.    He 


334  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

immediately  discovers  that,  in  a  given  time,  he  can  easily 
increase  the  amount  of  work  done.  He  is  thus  enabled  to 
pay  the  interest  on  the  capital  he  has  borrowed,  which  is 
represented  by  the  machine,  and  to  increase  his  own  returns. 
Hence  we  say  that  capital  is  productive.  Labor  is  an 
original  source  of  wealth,  for  capital  is  itself  the  product  of 
labor  applied  to  land.  Nevertheless,  labor  aided  by  capital 
is  far  more  productive  than  labor  working  alone.  Interest, 
therefore,  represents  this  additional  productivity. 

The  productivity  of  capital,  or  rather  of  labor  used  in  a 
capitalistic  form,  explains  the  demand  for  it.  Turning 
The  supply  now  to  the  supply  of  capital  we  find  that  it 
of  capital.  originates  by  saving.  The  capitalistic  process 
is  roundabout  and  consumes  time.  The  making  of  capital 
involves  an  immediate  abstaining  from  present  enjoyment. 
The  choice  must  be  made  between  reserving  goods  for 
future  production  or  consuming  them  for  present  use. 
Only  the  latter  can  afford  immediate  enjoyment,  and  the 
creation  of  capital  means  deferring  consumption  from  the 
present  to  the  future.  A  nation  may  demand  the  pro- 
duction of  luxuries,  or  it  may  be  saving  enough  to  direct 
production  into  the  channels  of  capital.  Each  individual 
faces  the  same  problem.  He  can  receive  his  share  of  the 
national  income  in  the  form  of  consumption  goods  or  in 
the  form  of  capital.  He  may  never  see  the  capital,  but  he 
can  hold  in  his  possession  a  claim  upon  it  in  the  form  of 
securities  or  a  bank  deposit  which  pays  interest.  Each 
individual  has  the  choice  of  spending  his  money  for  the 
immediate  gratification  of  his  \\  ants  or  of  depositing  it  in 
a  savings  bank.  The  bank  will  invest  the  money  in  some 
productive  enterprise  and  thus  further  the  creation  of 
capital.  From  the  additional  wealth  created  by  this  pro- 


The  Distribution  of  the  National  Income  335 

ductive  enterprise,  the  bank  will  not  only  enrich  itself,  but 
it  will  also  pay  interest  to  its  depositors.  As  the  savings 
increase,  that  is,  as  the  supply  of  capital  increases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  demand  for  it,  the  lower  will  be  the  rate  of 
interest. 

Profits  may  be  characterized  as  the  uncertain  share  in 
the  process  of  distribution.  They  arise  because  of  changes 
in  prices,  or  in  the  popular  demand.  Every 

Profits. 

enterpriser  must  be  a  speculator  to  the  extent 
of  taking  industrial  risks.  Losses  balance  profits.  A  new 
venture  must  offer  an  extra  reward  in  the  form  of  profits, 
or  the  investor  will  be  content  to  accept  merely  the  cur- 
rent rate  of  interest.  The  return  upon  bonds  is  an  exam- 
ple of  fixed  interest,  but  the  more  uncertain  returns  in  the 
form  of  varying  dividends  on  stock  represent  profits. 

The  share  of  the  national  income  which  goes  to  labor  is 
known  as  wages.  Just  as  land  in  its  economic  sense  includes 
all  forms  of  natural  resources,  so  labor,  -in  a  Wages. 
similar  sense,  includes  all  kinds  of  human  pro-  Causes  of 
ducers,  whether  brain  workers  or  hand  workers. 
The  distinction  between  salary  and  wages  is  a  social  dis- 
tinction rather  than  an  economic  one.  The  return  of 
labor  is  measured  in  terms  of  wages.  Nevertheless  we 
find  great  differences  in  wages,  for  an  explanation  of 
which  under  a  regime  of  free  competition  we  must  largely 
turn  to  conditions  of  supply  and  demand.  The  number  of 
competent  men  for  certain  types  of  work  is  limited,  either 
because  of  a  lack  of  natural  ability  or  because  of  a  lack  of 
proper  training.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supply  of  some 
of  the  lower  types  of  labor  is  great.  We  have  seen  the 
tendency  of  population  to  grow  from  the  bottom,  that  is 
to  increase  more  rapidly  among  the  lower  economic  groups. 


336  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

According  to  Professor  Carver,  wages  in  such  occupations 
will  therefore  remain  low  as  long  as  the  number  of  workers 
in  these  groups  continues  to  increase  either  by  an  advanc- 
ing birth  rate  or  by  an  increasing  immigration. 

A  number  of  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the 
different  kinds  of  labor.  Professor  Seager  distinguishes 
Different  between  five  different  grades  of  workers,  as  fol- 
labor  groups.  jows:  (x)  men  having  superior  capacity  for 
planning  and  carrying  out  large  undertakings;  (2)  men 
competent  to  carry  out  small  undertakings  or  to  administer 
large  commercial  and  industrial  undertakings  in  sub- 
ordinate positions,  as  well  as  men  having  average  pro- 
fessional ability;  (3)  men  trained  for  mechanical  or  clerical 
labor;  (4)  men  without  special  training,  but  possessing  the 
required  strength  and  endurance  for  manual  labor;  (5)  men 
who  lack  the  mental  and  physical  qualities  necessary  for 
continuous  labor  of  any  kind.  However,  no  such  classi- 
fication can  be  absolute,  but  is  merely  suggestive.  One 
group  fades  into  the  other,  and  there  is  considerable  over- 
lapping. Again,  in  a  democracy  individuals  are  constantly 
moving  up  and  down  from  one  group  into  another.  The 
romance  of  American  history  lies  in  the  absence  of  social 
castes.  A  rail  splitter  becomes  president,  and  many  of 
the  great  captains  of  modern  industry  rise  from  the  ranks. 

Just  as  there  are  differences  in  land  which  explain  rent, 
so  there  are  human  differences  which  explain  wages.  The 
Explanation  reallv  important  question  is  whether  these  dif- 
of  differ-  ferences  are  the  result  of  heredity  or  of  environ- 

ences. 

ment.  Are  certain  individuals  in  society 
"hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water"  because  they  are 
mentally  incapable  of  doing  anything  else?  Or,  is  it 
merely  that  they  never  received  the  education  or  inspira- 


The  Distribution  of  the  National  Income  337 

tion  necesssary  to  do  something  better?  Mental  and 
physical  differences  between  individuals  will  always  exist, 
because  the  force  of  physical  heredity  is  as  enduring  as  life 
itself.  Perhaps  some  day  we  may  be  able  to  measure, 
with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  these  inherent  differences. 
Environment,  however,  as  well  as  heredity  determines 
these  labor  groups.  Low  wages  are  the  result  of  low 
standards  of  living  as  well  as  the  cause.  A  certain  mode 
of  life  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  social  heredity,  as  a  dark 
skin  may  be  of  the  physical  heredity.  Although  it  is 
possible  to  overcome  the  former  and  not  the  latter,  com- 
paratively few  individuals  succeed  in  rising  above  the 
social  standards  of  their  group.  Social  workers  speak  of  the 
problem  of  mental  inertia.  A  democracy  must  seek  not 
only  to  improve  the  social  environment,  but  also  to  extend 
the  advantages  of  the  public  schools  system.  Equality 
of  opportunity  depends  upon  the  diffusion  of  knowledge, 
which  tends  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible  the  human 
differences  which  are  the  result  of  environment. 

Under  certain  conditions,  differences  in  wages  within  a 
group  are  fostered  by  the  immobility  or  fixity  of  labor. 
Workers  are  human  beings  and  form  attach-   Differences 
ments  for  certain  communities,  fellow  workers,   within  the 

group. 

and  kinds  of  work.  Change  is  not  always  easy. 
Therefore,  within  the  same  general  group  of  labor  there 
are  differences  of  wages  because  the  laborers  do  not  want 
to  move  to  a  new  place,  even  though  they  could  get  more 
money.  The  immobility  of  labor  is  one  cause  of  such 
differences,  but  there  are  numerous  other  reasons.  For 
example,  regularity  of  employment  must  be  considered. 
All  other  things  being  equal,  positions  which  offer  steady 
employment  will  pay  lower  wages  than  those  which  are 
w 


338  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

seasonal.  The  chance  of  promotion  is  another  factor  to  be 
considered.  Employments  which  are  "blind  alley"  jobs 
should  pay  more  than  positions  which  have  the  possibility 
of  advancement.  Again,  certain  kinds  of  work  are  held 
in  higher  social  esteem  than  others.  Some  men  are  con- 
tent to  receive  smaller  salaries  in  order  to  hold  "white 
collar"  jobs.  If  the  same  grade  of  labor  is  demanded  in 
two  occupations,  wages  will  be  lower  in  the  more  pleasant 
or  safer  occupation.  Again,  if  a  long  period  of  preparation 
is  required,  wages  will  be  higher  than  when  no  such  pre- 
liminary training  is  necessary.  For  this  reason  the 
physician  is  seldom  overpaid,  in  spite  of  his  brief  consulta- 
tion with  his  patient.  The  difference  in  wages  between 
men  and  women  in  the  same  occupations  is  gradually  dis- 
appearing. The  explanation  of  the  old  difference  lay  in 
the  overcrowding  of  women  into  relatively  fewer  occu- 
pations. Again,  they  frequently  had  fewer  dependents 
and  usually  abandoned  their  occupation  after  marriage. 

Of  recent  years  there  have  been  attempts  to  classify  the 
various  shares  in  distribution  as  either  earned  or  unearned 
Earned  and  mcomes-  Tnis  influence  has  made  itself  chiefly 
*e^  m  ^e  reaml  °f  taxation  in  the  form  of 
inheritance,  super-income,  and  land  taxes. 
Wages,  however,  are  the  result  of  one's  own  efforts  and 
can  therefore  generally  be  called  earned  incomes.  Rent 
is  due  to  the  superior  productivity  of  land.  Because  it 
represents  nature's  part  in  production  rather  than  that  of 
man,  it  has  been  frequently  designated  unearned  income. 
In  profits  there  are  both  earned  and  unearned  elements. 
This  is  true  because  profits  may  be  due  to  the  foresight, 
ability,  or  efficiency  of  the  enterpriser,  or  they  may  be  the 
result  of  risk  and  speculation.  When  profits  are  the 


The  Distribution  of  the  National  Income  339 

result  of  monopoly,  they  represent  a  distinctly  anti-social 
and  unearned  income.  Capital  is  the  result  of  saving,  and 
hence  interest  is  earned  by  the  one  who  does  the  saving. 
Critics  of  the  present  system,  however,  argue  that  such 
is  frequently  not  the  case,  for  it  is  inaccurate  to  speak  of 
interest  as  the  reward  of  saving  in  the  case  of  those  who 
have  inherited  large  fortunes.  Here  we  come  face  to  face 
with  the  rights  of  private  property.  An  individual  may 
have  labored  industriously  and  saved  patiently  in  order 
to  accumulate  a  small  fortune.  Instead  of  spending  his 
share  of  the  national  income  in  the  form  of  consumption 
goods,  he  may  have  invested  a  large  part  of  it  in  capital 
goods  because  of  their  future  income-producing  power. 
Shall  society  limit  his  right  to  bequeath  this  property  to 
his  children?  Again,  another  individual  may  have  saved 
his  wages  and  invested  them  in  land.  Shall  his  income, 
therefore,  be  called  unearned? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1 .  What  is  the  real  national  income?    How  is  it  measured? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  distribution  of  wealth? 

3.  What  are  the  factors  in  production,  and  what  shares  in  dis- 
tribution correspond  to  these  factors? 

4.  How  are  these  shares  in  distribution  roughly  determined? 

5.  Explain  and  criticize  the  so-called  law  of  variable  proportions. 

6.  How  do  you  explain  the  existence  of  rent?     Give  causes. 

7.  What  is  capital?     Give  illustrations. 

8.  Show  how  the  capitalistic  method  of  production  is  a  round- 
about process. 

9.  Show  how  capital  is  the  result  of  saving. 

10.  Explain  interest  from  the  point  of  view  of  both  borrower  and 
lender. 

1 1 .  What  do  you  think  would  be  the  effects  of  the  abolition  of 
interest  by  some  socialistic  law? 


340  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

12.  Differentiate  between  capital  and  consumption  goods.  Illustrate. 

13.  Do  you  think  this  distinction  important?    Why  or  why  not? 

14.  How  do  you  explain  the  various  labor  groups? 

15.  How  do  you  explain  the  differences  in  wages  between  these 
different  groups? 

1 6.  Why  are  wages  different  in  different  occupations  within   the 
same  labor  group? 

17.  What  do  you  understand  by  earned  and  unearned  incomes? 

1 8.  Do  you  think  this  distinction  is  accurate  and  possible? 

19.  Do  you  think  it  is  important?    Why  or  why  not? 

20.  Analyze  the  various  shares  in  distribution  upon  this  basis. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Efficiency  as  an  element  in  the  creation  of  capital. 

2.  Monopoly  as  a  factor  in  distribution. 

3.  The  theory  of  interest. 

4.  The  resemblance  between  the  theory  of  rent  and  the  theory  of 
profits. 

5.  The  theory  of  wages  from  the  standpoint  of  both  productivity 
and  monopoly. 

6.  Government  regulation  of  profits. 

7.  Laws  for  the  prevention  of  usury. 

8.  Wages  and  labor  unions. 

9.  Present  movements  designed  to  effect  changes  in  distribution. 

10.  Earned  and  unearned  incomes  as  applied  to  taxation  programs. 

1 1 .  The  inequalities  of  wealth. 

12.  Civilization  and  the  rights  of  private  property. 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.    American  Economic  Life,  Chaps.  XXXDC-XLIII. 

CARVER,  T.  N.    Principles  of  Political  Economy. 

CARVER,  T.  N.    Essays  in  Social  Justice. 

ELY,  R.  T.    Outlines  of  Economics,  pp.  493-524. 

HOBSON,  J.  A.    Work  and  Wealth. 

SEAGER,  H.  R.    Principles  of  Economics. 

TAUSSIG,  F.  W.    Principles  of  Economics,  Vol.  II,  pp.  3-43. 

WITHERS,  H.     The  Case  for  Capitalism. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

PROPOSED  ECONOMIC  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  STATE 

I.  Single  tax 

1.  Its  program 

2.  The  nature  of  economic  rent 

3.  Alleged  advantages 

4.  Objections 

5.  Progress  of  the  movement 
II.  Socialism 

1.  Meaning 

2.  Its  indictment  of  capitalism: 

a.  The  lure  of  profits 

b.  Wastes  of  competition, 

c.  Inequality  of  wealth 

d.  Exploitation  of  labor 

3.  The  development  of  schools  of  socialism: 

a.  Early  Utopian  socialists 

b.  Revolutionary  socialism 

c.  Evolutionary  socialism 

d.  Guild  socialism 

4.  Alleged  advantages  of  socialism: 

a.  Economic 

b.  Moral 

5.  Its  hidden  dangers 

6.  Political  strength  of  socialism: 

a.  In  Europe 

b.  In  England  and  America 

A  number  of  protests  have  been  made  against  the  pres- 
ent economic  system.     The  single  taxer  would  have  society 


341 


342  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

appropriate  rent,  while  the  socialist  would  have  the  State 
eliminate  the  private  appropriation  of  all  shares  in  the 
distribution  of  wealth  except  wages.  These  theories  rep- 
resent more  radical  readjustments  in  the  apportionment 
of  the  national  income  than  any  of  the  recent  changes  in 
taxation  that  have  been  discussed. 

Single  Tax. — The  modern  single  tax  movement  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  publication  of  Henry  George's 
its  Progress  and  Poverty  in  1879.  The  author  of  this 

program.  remarkable  book  raises  the  question  as  to  why 
the  gaunt  spectre  of  poverty  has  persistently  accompanied 
modern  progress.  Why  have  wages  tended  to  a  mere  sub- 
sistence level,  in  spite  of  the  great  inventions  of  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution?  Henry  George  finds  the  answer  to  his 
great  question  in  the  private  ownership  of  land  and  other 
natural  resources.  He  contends  that  the  share  in  the 
national  income  which  has  gone  in  the  form  of  rent  to  the 
fortunate  owners  of  land  should  go  to  labor  in  the  form  of 
additional  wages.  His  proposal  is  that  the  State  appro- 
priate rent  in  the  form  of  a  tax  upon  land  values.  It  is 
very  important  to  remember  that  land  in  this  connection 
means  unimproved  land.  Buildings  and  other  improve- 
ments upon  land,  in  the  form  of  labor  and  capital  expended, 
are  not  to  be  included.  At  present  unimproved  land  is 
actually  taxed  at  a  lower  rate  than  improved  land.  But 
under  single  tax  an  idle  piece  of  land  would  pay  the  same 
tax  as  an  improved  piece  of  land  of  the  same  size,  fertility, 
or  location.  The  value  of  the  land  itself  must  therefore 
be  assessed  independently  of  the  buildings  upon  it,  which 
are  not  taxed  at  all.  As  the  State  is  to  tax  land  values 
up  to  their  limit,  such  a  program  means  practically  the 
end  of  private  property  in  land. 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      343 

Rent  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word  includes  the  pay- 
ment for  the  use  of  the  buildings  upon  the  land  as  well  as 
for  the  use  of  the  land  itself.  Rent  in  its  true  „ 

The  nature 

economic  sense  is  merely  that  portion  of  the  of  economic 
commercial  rent  which  can  be  ascribed  to  the 
value  of  the  land  itself.  One  cause  of  rent  lies  in  the  varying 
natural  fertility  of  land.  Inasmuch  as  this  is  the  result  of 
nature,  and  not  due  to  the  efforts  of  man,  the  single  taxer 
asks  why  the  fortunate  owner  should  be  permitted  to 
appropriate,  in  the  form  of  economic  rent,  this  surplus 
which  he  has  not  produced.  "The  earth  is  the  Lord's  and 
the  fulness  thereof."  The  single  taxer  argues  that  the  good 
things  of  nature  were  provided  for  all  the  children  of  all 
the  people  and  not  for  the  private  owners.  Another  source 
of  economic  rent  lies  in  the  scarcity  of  land  in  certain 
sections.  This  is  particularly  true  of  cities.  Compare  the 
price  of  an  acre  of  ground  on  Manhattan  Island  to-day  with 
its  price  in  the  days  of  the  first  John  Jacob  Astor.  As 
population  increases  and  building  develops,  land  in  the 
central  section  of  the  city  becomes  more  valuable.  A  given 
piece  of  land  may  remain  unoccupied  while  the  growing 
city  is  built  around  it.  Although  the  owner  has  done  nothing 
to  increase  its  productivity,  the  sale  or  rental  value  of  the 
land  has  increased  enormously.  Such  a  rise  in  value  which 
is  known  as  the  " unearned  increment"  has  been  very 
common  in  growing  American  communities.  The  single 
taxer  contends  that  such  an  increase  in  value  is  socially 
created,  that  is,  it  is  due  to  the  development  of  the  entire 
community.  Hence  he  advocates  that  society  appropriate 
this  economic  rent  in  the  form  of  an  increased  tax  upon 
land  in  proportion  to  its  increase  in  value. 

The  single  taxer  justifies  his  position  upon  the  ground 


344  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

that  land  is  different  from  other  forms  of  wealth,  such  as 
capital  and  consumption  goods  which  are  made  by  man. 
Alleged  Again,  land  values  are  often  socially  created,  that 
advantages.  ^  tney  are  created  by  the  whole  community 
rather  than  by  any  single  individual.  With  these  two  prem- 
ises as  a  starting  point,  the  single  taxer  then  attempts  to 
point  out  a  number  of  advantages  in  his  plan.  In  the  first 
place,  idle  land  will  be  brought  into  use,  for  it  will  no  longer 
be  profitable  to  hold  it  for  a  rise  in  value.  Speculation  in 
land  will  disappear,  while  those  who  can  utilize  it  to  the 
best  advantage  will  be  enabled  to  do  so.  The  breaking  of 
the  land  monopoly  will  then  increase  production  and  inci- 
dentally lower  the  cost  of  living.  Another  alleged  advant- 
age of  the  single  tax  is  the  relief  of  poverty.  Impelled  by 
sympathy  for  the  lot  of  the  poor,  a  burning  desire  led 
Henry  George  to  the  discovery  of  his  theory  of  agrarian 
reform.  In  the  last  place,  such  a  system  would  open  an 
abundant  source  of  revenue  with  which  to  meet  the  increas- 
ing expenses  of  government.  Moreover,  instead  of  an  intri- 
cate and  complex  system  of  taxation,  the  whole  field  of 
public  finance  could  be  revolutionized  by  the  introduction 
of  such  a  simplified  and  unified  system  of  taxation. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  of  doubtful  expediency  to  rely 
upon  any  one  single  tax.  The  expenses  of  government  and 

.  .  the  rent  fund  do  not  necessarily  correspond.  We 
have  seen  how  the  former,  owing  to  the  War, 
suddenly  increased  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  latter.  In 
the  second  place,  is  it  fair  that  one  share  in  the  distribution 
of  wealth  should  bear  the  entire  cost  of  taxation?  Is  rent 
the  only  unearned  income?  Single  tax  would  practically 
mean  the  confiscation  of  the  wealth  represented  by  property 
rights  in  land.  Although  land  values  do  not  represent 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      345 

individual  human  effort  and  to  this  extent  are  unearned, 
yet  for  hundreds  of  years  society  has  sanctioned  the  private 
ownership  of  land.  Savings  and  wages  have  been  invested 
in  land  like  any  other  form  of  wealth.  Few  individuals 
living  to-day  acquired  land  as  a  free  gift  of  nature,  but 
rather  by  purchase  or  inheritance.  In  the  third  place, 
administrative  difficulties  are  urged  against  the  single 
tax.  Is  the  distinction  between  rent  and  interest,  or  between 
land  and  capital,  a  practical  as  well  as  a  theoretical  dis- 
tinction? Can  an  assessor  distinguish  between  the  value 
of  a  farm  which  is  due  to  material  qualities  of  the  soil  and 
the  value  which  is  due  to  the  capital  and  labor  expended  in 
its  cultivation?  In  a  city,  it  is  easier  to  separate  the  value 
of  a  building  from  the  value  of  the  site. 

The  single  tax  movement  has  made  considerable  prog- 
ress in  both  new  and  old  countries.    Although  hesitating 
to  accept  it  as  the  only  form  of  taxation,  the    Progress 
principle  of  the  single  tax  has  been  adopted  in   of  the 

movement. 

New  Zealand  and  Vancouver.  In  a  modified 
form  it  has  made  headway  in  parts  of  England,  Germany, 
and  other  countries.  The  rents,  or  royalties,  going  to  the 
owners  of  the  British  coal  mines  were  under  fire  for  some 
time  after  the  outbreak  of  the  War.  The  appropriation 
by  society  of  future  "  unearned  increments"  has  been 
advocated  in  both  foreign  and  native  lands.  In  February, 
1920,  a  bill  was  introduced  into  Congress  which  provided 
for  a  one  per  cent  tax  upon  all  unimproved  land  values  in 
excess  of  ten  thousand  dollars.  The  proposed  measure 
was  aimed  at  the  partial  appropriation  of  economic  rent 
to  pay  for  a  share  of  war  expenses. 

Socialism. — The  socialist  would  have  society   absorb 
not  only  rent,  but  also  profits  and  interest.    This  would 


346  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

mean  that  private  property,  rights  in  capital  as  well  as  in 
land  would  cease  to  exist.  Private  property  rights  in  con- 
sumption goods  would  continue  to  exist,  how- 
ever, to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Although 
socialists  differ  on  this  point,  it  is  probable  that  an  indi- 
vidual would  be  permitted  to  own  his  own  home,  furniture, 
and  personal  effects.  He  would  not,  however,  be  per- 
mitted to  own  a  number  of  houses  for  his  own  private 
gain.  There  would  be  no  such  things  as  corporate  stocks 
and  bonds  yielding  so-called  unearned  incomes.  Wages 
would  be  the  only  source  of  income,  although  most  social- 
ists would  make  labor  include  both  hand  and  brain  workers. 
Production  would  be  carried  on  exclusively  by  the  State. 
Free  competition  and  the  individual  business  enterpriser 
would  cease  to  exist,  while  their  places  would  be  taken 
by  government  monopoly  and  national  ownership.  All 
industries  would  be  regarded  as  public  utilities,  and  the 
capital  would  be  owned  and  saved  collectively. 

Such  sweeping  changes  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
socialist  is  completely  dissatisfied  with  the  present  economic 
Its  indict-  system.  That  such  is  the  case  is  attested  by  his 
ca^taUsm-  Bitter  criticisms  of  the  present  social  order.  In 
The  lure  the  first  place  he  contends  that,  under  the  pres- 
ent stimulus  of  private  profit,  production  is  not 
carried  on  in  the  best  interests  of  society.  The  goods  pro- 
duced are  often  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  public  is 
defrauded.  Cloth,  he  asserts,  is  often  shoddy,  and  food 
adulterated.  Moreover,  it  is  contended  that  the  present 
system  diverts  production  from  the  making  of  necessities 
and  comforts  for  all  to  the  manufacture  of  luxuries  for  the 
rich.  Economic  demand,  which  is  the  indicator  production 
follows,  is  determined  by  purchasing  power  rather  than  by 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      347 

social  desirability.  Even  more  serious  than  the  economic 
wastes  are  the  human  wastes.  Industrial  accidents  and 
occupational  diseases  would  be  lessened  were  it  not  for  the 
great  race  for  profits.  Finally,  under  the  spur  of  private 
profits,  the  great  natural  resources  are  wasted  and  con- 
servation finds  little  place  in  the  social  system. 

Economic  competition,  as  well  as  the  motive  of  private 
profits,  is  regarded  by  the  socialist  as  productive  of  waste 
because  it  results  in  unnecessary  duplication  of  wastes  of 
equipment  and  labor.  Advertising  and  cross  comPeMton- 
freights  are  also  among  the  expenses  of  competition.  The 
economies  of  large  scale  production  are  contrasted  with  the 
expenses  and  wastes  of  small  scale  production.  The  growth 
of  private  monopoly  is  cited  as  proof  of  the  inefficiency  of 
the  present,  system  of  free  competition.  Instead  of  having 
numerous  corporate  monopolies  for  the  gains  of  private 
individuals,  the  socialist  would  substitute  State  monopolies 
for  the  good  of  all.  In  the  last  place,  the  present  com- 
petitive system  is  characterized  by  frequent  cycles  of 
depression,  which  bring  unemployment  and  loss  of  wages 
to  the  workers.  It  is  contended  that  under  a  socialistic 
regime  production  would  be  stabilized. 

A  third  indictment  of  the  socialist  against  the  accepted 
order  of  things  is  the  present  inequality  of  wealth.     Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  King  of  Wisconsin  University  in  his  inequality 
study  of  the  wealth  and  income  of  the  people  of  °fwealth' 
the  United  States,  two  per  cent  of  the  population  own 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  wealth,  while  the  poorest  two-thirds 
of  the  population  own  but  one-twentieth  of  the  entire 
national  wealth.     The  country  at  present  possesses  several 
thousand  millionaires  on  the  one  hand,  and  several  million 
paupers  on  the  other.     It  is  contended  that  the  very  rich 


348  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

people  cannot  possibly  spend  their  entire  incomes  in  the 
gratification  of  their  own  desires.  For  them  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  national  income  takes  the  form  of  capital  goods 
rather  than  consumption  goods.  Hence,  their  wealth  is 
a  kind  of  trust  fund,  which  should  be  administered  in  the 
best  interests  of  society.  Furthermore,  the  modern  social- 
ist objects  to  such  concentrated  control  of  production  by  a 
few  individuals,  who  in  many  cases  have  obtained  their 
wealth  by  speculation,  monopoly,  or  inheritance. 

The  large  share  of  the  national  income  which  goes  to 
individuals  in  the  form  of  profits,  rent,  and  interest  leaves 
Exploitation  &  comparatively  small  share  for  wages.  Hence, 
of  labor.  tne  JQW  standards  of  living  of  the  workers.  Yet, 
asserts  the  socialist,  labor  is  the  source  of  all  wealth.  The 
sole  measure  of  value  for  any  commodity,  according  to  the 
socialist,  should  be  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  its 
production.  Since  this  is  not  the  case  under  the  pres- 
ent system,  the  worker  does  not  receive  all  that  he  pro- 
duces. Such  a  system  of  exploitation  is  possible  only  when 
the  worker  does  not  own  the  instruments  of  production 
and  is  forced  to  accept  what  the  employer  sees  fit  to  give 
him.  The  expression  "wage  slavery''  is  sometimes  used 
by  the  socialist  to  designate  this  condition  of  the  worker. 
Although  socialists  are  united  in  their  criticisms  of  the 
present  capitalistic  system  they  differ  widely  among  them- 
selves as  to  how  the  new  social  order  should  be 
mentof  reconstructed.  Indeed,  so  divergent  are  the 
socialism:  plans  of  various  writers  that  frequently  there  is 
little  common  ground  except  the  basic  principle 
of  collective  ownership  of  the  means  of  produc- 
tion. Modern  socialism  may  be  said  to  have  made  its  first 
appearance  as  a  protest  against  the  early  evils  of  the  fac- 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      349 

tory  system.  At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
there  appeared  a  little  group  of  writers  who  are  commonly 
referred  to  as  the  Utopian  socialists.  Among  the  leaders 
were  Saint-Simon  and  Fourier  in  France,  and  Robert  Owen 
in  England.  They  preached  the  gospel  of  the  brotherhood 
of  man  and  the  dignity  of  labor,. but  were  inclined  to  under- 
estimate the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  their  various 
proposals.  They  are  chiefly  important  because  of  their 
influence  in  starting  a  number  of  little  communistic 
societies.  Of  this  character,  Brook  Farm  in  New  England 
is  an  illustration,  which  has  literary  as  well  as  economic 
associations. 

Out  of  the  Revolutions  of  1830  and  1848  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  emerged  other  socialistic,  schemes.     The 
ideas  of  Louis  Blanc  were  supposedly  put  into  Revolutionary 
practice  in  the  short-lived  public  work  shops  of   socialtsm' 
France.     The  experiment  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
terrible  "June  Days/'  and  reaction  triumphed  with  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Louis  Napoleon.     The  real  father  of  modern 
socialism  was  Karl  Marx,  whose  ponderous  work  entitled 
Das  Kapital  has  been  described  by  his  followers  as  the 
"bible  of  socialism."     A  German  of  Jewish  parentage,  he 
was  exiled  from  his  native  land  because  of  his  radicalism, 
and  he  accomplished  most  of  his  work  in  London.     Marx 
was  an  exponent  of  the  economic  interpretation  of  history 
and  explained  the  institutions  of  each  age  in  terms  of  the 
prevailing  economic  system.    He  regarded  human  history  as 
an  evolution  from  the  slavery  of  antiquity  to  the  serfdom 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  from  this  medieval  serfdom  to  the 
"wage  slavery"  of  modern  times.     The  Industrial  Revo- 
lution, as  we  have  seen,  created  a  gulf  between  the  workers 
and  the  new  group  of  capitalists  who  owned  the  instru- 


350  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ments  of  production.  Marx  believed  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  bridge  this  gulf  and  hence  preached  the  doctrine 
of  conflict  or  class  struggle.  Out  of  this  situation  was  to 
come  an  inevitable  social  revolution,  in  which  the  workers 
would  wrest  the  control  of  the  instruments  of  production 
from  the  exploiting  capitalists. 

As  opposed  to  the  revolutionary  socialism  there  is  an 
evolutionary  socialism.  This  school  teaches  that  socialism 
Evolutionary  is  not  to  come  suddenly  by  the  method  of  bloody 
revolution,  but  by  a  gradual  process  of  peaceful 
changes.  Its  advocates  contend  that  monopolies  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  general,  and  that  government  regu- 
lation is  being  constantly  widened.  The  nationalization  of 
industries,  they  assert,  is  but  a  step  from  regulation. 
The  changing  status  of  public  utilities  is  pointed  to  for 
proof  of  this  view,  which  further  predicts  that  one  by  one 
the  State  is  to  take  over  all  important  industries.  The 
leading  example  of  evolutionary  socialism  is  the  Fabian 
school  of  English  socialists,  including  Bernard  Shaw  and 
Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb.  The  name  is  taken  from  the 
Roman  general  Fabius,  who  used  the  policy  of  delay  against 
his  brilliant  Carthaginian  opponent,  Hannibal.  Another 
group  of  evolutionary  socialists  have  been  termed  Christian 
socialists.  To  this  group  of  idealists,  socialism  is  a  spiri- 
tual as  well  as  an  economic  evolution.  Although  many 
socialists  have  been  accused  of  agnosticism,  this  little  group 
of  thinkers  rest  their  case  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  father- 
hood of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man. 

Guild  socialism  represents  another  and  more  recent  il- 
lustration of  the  growth  of  socialistic  cults.  Under  the 
leadership  of  Mr.  Cole,  guild  socialism  has  found  much  favor 
among  English  socialists.  It  may  be.regarded  as  a  reaction 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      351 

against  the  centralized  bureaucracy  of  state  socialism.  Guild 
socialists  claim  that  the  factory  system  has  robbed  the 
worker  of  his  freedom,  and  that  the  machine  pro-  Guild 
cess  has  killed  the  joy  of  workmanship,  which  soc*ahsm- 
lightened  manufacture  by  hand  in  the  days  of  the  medieval 
guilds.  Their  cry  is  for  self-government  in  industry.  This 
could  never  be  obtained  by  state  socialism,  which  means 
the  autocratic  regulation  of  industries  by  cabinet  ministers 
or  state  departments  of  industry.  The  state  socialism  of 
Germany  is  regarded  as  stifling  the  initiative  of  the  indi- 
vidual worker.  The  governmental  machinery  of  guild 
socialism  is  to  be  built  upon  the  organizations  of  existing 
trades  unions.  Indeed,  the  movement  has  been  described 
as  an  idealization  and  extension  of  trade  unionism.  Fore- 
men are  to  be  elected  by  the  workers,  and  there  are  to  be 
shop  committees  and  works  committees.  A  national  guild 
congress  is  to  represent  the  workers  of  the  various  industries 
in  some  such  way  as  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
represents  the  different  groups  of  workers  in  the  United 
States.  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb  in  a  recent  book  have 
attempted  to  sketch  a  constitution  for  their  new  socialistic 
commonwealth  of  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Commons 
is  retained  to  represent  the  consumers,  but  the  House  of 
Lords  is  abolished  in  favor  of  a  new  national  body  to  repre- 
sent organizations  of  producers. 

The  divergence  of  the  plans  of  the  different  socialists 
makes  it  difficult  to  generalize  upon  the  alleged  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  socialism.  The  gains  claimed  Alleged 
for  it  divide  themselves  into  two  groups,  namely,    Economic. 
the  economic  and  the  moral.    In  contrast  to  the  present 
haphazard  methods  of  production  by  more  or  less  indepen- 
dent and  competing  companies,  socialism  offers  an  organ- 


352  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

ized  system  of  production  by  the  State.  The  advocates  of 
this  system  claim  that  under  it  natural  resources  would  be 
more  effectively  conserved,  and  the  wastes  of  competition 
eliminated.  It  is  probably  true  that  duplication  of  plants 
would  be  avoided,  and  the  reduction  of  administrative 
expenses  accomplished.  Production,  also,  might  be  redi- 
rected into  more  effective  channels  for  the  attainment  of 
social  welfare.  The  socialist  might  sum  up  his  case  as 
follows:  more  goods,  better  goods,  cheaper  goods  under 
more  desirable  working  conditions,  with  shorter  hours  and 
higher  wages. 

An  appeal  is  made  to  the  claims  of  social  justice  as  well 
as  to  economic  advantage,  for  socialism  would  have  no 
glaring  inequalities  of  wealth.  There  would  be 
no  leisure  class  living  in  idleness,  nor  unemployed 
persons  looking  in  vain  for  a  means  of  livelihood.  Another 
alleged  moral  advantage  of  socialism  is  the  appeal  to  the 
spirit  of  cooperation,  rather  than  to  that  of  competition  and 
conflict.  Production  for  profit  may  foster  human  selfish- 
ness, while  socialism  relies  upon  the  individual's  desire  to 
contribute  to  the  common  good.  Personal  ambition  would 
no  longer  seek  to  acquire  wealth,  but  rather  the  social  esteem 
that  comes  through  conspicuous  social  service.  The  newly 
fostered  fraternalism  would  make  men  live  like  brothers  in 
the  new  social  order.  It  would  transcend  state  boundaries 
and  pass  from  nation  to  nation  until  war  should  be  no  more. 
Students  of  society  may  well  admire  the  ideals  of  social- 
ism, even  though  they  fail  to  see  how  socialism  will  bring 
its  hidden  them  to  pass.  We  face  a  condition — not  a  theory, 
and  we  live  in  the  present — not  in  some  future 
idealized  state.  Are  men  at  present  so  constituted  that 
they  will  work  except  under  the  stimulus  of  necessity  and 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      353 

self  interest?  Do  normal  human  beings  enjoy  toil  for  its 
own  sake?  Assuming  that  those  members  of  society  who 
do  not  work  will  not  be  permitted  to  live  in  such  an  ideal- 
istic commonwealth,  who  will  apportion  the  tasks  among 
the  citizens  of  a  socialistic  state?  Again,  how  will  the 
value  of  a  day's  work  be  determined?  If  no  interest  is 
paid  on  capital,  what  inducements  will  there  be  to  saving 
and  to  the  accumulation  of  surplus  wealth?  Socialists 
have  contended  that  saving  will  be  done  collectively,  that 
is,  the  State  will  provide  for  capital  goods  as  well  as  con- 
sumption goods.  Here,  again,  we  face  a  difficult  problem 
of  administration.  In  what  manner,  and  by  whom,  will 
the  course  of  production  be  directed?  Other  practical 
difficulties  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  thoughtful  student. 
What  can  take  the  place  of  the  genius  of  the  American 
enterpriser,  and  how  can  the  State  bear  the  strain  of  con- 
ducting the  giant  industries?  Behind  the  apparent  plan- 
lessness  of  our  economic  system,  there  is  a  working  mecha- 
nism hidden  by  its  very  complexity.  Who  can  say  what 
would  result  from  its  annihilation?  It  is  safer  "  to  bear  the 
ills  we  have  than  fly  to  others  that  we  know  not  of." 

At  present  there  are  one  or  more  socialist  parties  in  every 
important  nation.     The  earliest  political  development  of 
socialism  took  place  in  Germany  and  France. 
Excluding  Russia,  the  great  political  unknown,    strength  of 
it  is  still  true  that  the  strongholds  of  socialism  f^Eurlfe'. 
are  upon  the  continent  of  Europe.     Although 
Bismarck  and  the  dethroned  German  emperor  tried  to 
fight  the  movement,  it  steadily  grew  in  importance.     In 
spite  of  the  government's  refusal  to  reapportion  the  seats 
in  the  Reichstag  in  accordance  with  changes  in  popula- 
tion, the  number  of  socialist  representatives  increased.    At 


354  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  close  of  the  century,  the  Social-Democratic  party  polled 
two  million  votes  and,  before  the  War,  five  million  votes. 
Although  the  socialist  deputies  had  persistently  refused  to 
vote  for  military  appropriations,  they  were  submerged  dur- 
ing the  World  War.  With  the  revolution  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  present  German  Republic,  the  situation  changed 
completely  when  the  government  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  more  conservative  socialistic  elements.  In  France 
there  have  been  a  number  of  socialist  factions  of  varying 
degrees  of  radicalism.  Before  the  War,  the  socialist  vote 
had  increased  enormously,  and  several  socialists  held  posts 
in  the  national  cabinet.  During  the  period  of  the  War, 
in  France,  as  in  Germany  and  most  other  countries, 
nationalism  triumphed  over  socialism.  With  the  end  of 
hostilities,  there  were  indications  that  the  future  would 
show  an  increase  of  strength  upon  the  part  of  the  socialist 
parties  in  both  France  and  Italy. 

In  England  socialism  has  been  overshadowed  by  the 
Labor  Party,  which  is  largely  a  development  of  trade 
in  En  land  unionism-  Up  to  the  present  time  the  majority 
and  '  of  the  labor  group  in  America  has  been  opposed 

America. 

to  the  formation  of  any  separate  political  party. 
In  addition  to  the  Socialist  Party,  however,  there  is  a 
Socialist  Labor  Party  in  the  United  States.  Although 
neither  of  these  two  parties  has  attained  much  numerical 
strength,  the  socialist  vote  in  this  country  has  increased, 
and  a  socialist  member  has  been  sent  to  Congress.  In 
conclusion,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  good  portion 
of  the  strength  of  the  socialist  movement  has  spent  itself 
indirectly  in  the  cause  of  social  reform.  To  be  "  social- 
istic" does  not  necessarily  mean  that  one  is  a  socialist, 
believing  in  the  collective  ownership  of  the  means  of  pro- 


Proposed  Economic  Reconstruction  of  the  State      355 

duction,  but  often  merely  indicates  a  general  dissatisfac- 
tion with  existing  economic  conditions.  In  America 
socialism  itself  is  not  crystallizing  into  any  powerful,  gov- 
erning group,  but  rather  is  its  energy  being  dissipated  by 
the  gradual  absorption  of  its  less  radical  ideas  into  the 
common  political  consciousness.  This  means  the  slow 
death  of  the  radical  movement. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1 .  Differentiate  between  economic  rent  and  the  meaning  of  rent 
as  ordinarily  used. 

2.  Why  has  rent  been  termed  an  unearned  income? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  "unearned  increment"? 

4.  Upon  what  grounds  does  the  single  taxer  justify  his  proposal? 

5.  What  advantages  can  you  see  in  such  a  program? 

6.  Do  you  think  that  the  appropriation  of  rent  by  the  State 
would  be  a  miscarriage  of  justice?    Why  or  why  not? 

7.  What  objections  can  you  see  to  the  single  tax? 

8.  How  would  private  property  rights  under  socialism  be  different 
from  what  they  are  at  present?    How  different  under  the  single  tax? 

9.  What  is  the  essential  in  any  definition  of  socialism? 

10.  Upon  what  grounds  do  socialists  criticize  the  present  economic 
system?    Which  of  these  do  you  think  is  the  strongest? 

11.  What  does  the  socialist  understand  by  "wage  slavery"? 

12.  Do  you  think  there  is  any  justification  for  the  above  term? 

13.  Contrast  revolutionary  with  evolutionary  socialism. 

14.  Outline  some  of  the  leading  schools  of  socialism. 

15.  What  economic  advantages  can  you  see  in  socialism? 

1 6.  What  economic  disadvantages? 

17.  In  what  ways,  if  at  all,  will  socialism  further  the  cause  of 
social  justice?    How? 

1 8.  Contrast  the  present  motives  to  production  with  those  under 
socialism.    Which  are  the  more  exalted?    Which  the  more  effective? 

19.  What  do  you  regard  as  the  chief  objections  to  socialism? 

20.  Sketch  the  progress  of  socialism  upon  the  continent  of  Europe. 


356  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

21.  What  is  happening  to  socialism  in  England?     In  the  United 
States? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Economic  rent  and  the  former  Irish  question. 

2.  The  life  and  work  of  Henry  George. 

3.  Applications  of  the  single  tax  principle  to-day. 

4.  The  relation  between  economic  rent  and  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns. 

5.  Utopian  socialists. 

6.  The  life  and  work  of  Karl  Marx. 

7.  Fabian  socialists. 

8.  Guild  socialism. 

9.  The  state  socialism  of  Germany. 
10.  Socialism  in  the  United  States. 

REFERENCES 

COLE,  G.  D.  H.     Self  Government  in  Industry. 

COLE,  G.  D.  H.     Social  Theory. 

COLE,  G.  D.  H.    Guild  Socialism. 

ELY,  R.  T.     Socialism  and  Social  Reform. 

GEORGE,  H.     Progress  and  Poverty. 

HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems. 

HILLQUIT,  M.     History  of  Socialism  in  the  United  States. 

KIRKUP,  T.     History  of  Socialism. 

LAIDLER,  H.  W.    Socialism  in  Thought  and  Action. 

SPARGO,  J.    Syndicalism,  Industrialism  and  Socialism. 

TAUSSIG,  F.  W.     Principles  of  Economics. 

WITHERS,  H.     The  Case  for  Capitalism. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
PROBLEMS  or  ORGANIZED  LABOR 

I.  The  development  of  trade  unionism 

1.  Situation  in  Great  Britain 

2.  Status  in  the  United  States 

3.  Early  organizations 

4.  American  Federation  of  Labor: 

a.  Development 

b.  Organization 

5.  Revolutionary  unionism : 

a.  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 

b.  Syndicalism 

II.  The  demands  of  labor 

1 .  Causes  of  conflict 

2.  Wages 

3.  Hours  of  work: 

a.  Fatigue  in  industry 

b.  The  shorter  working  day 

4.  Output 

5.  Collective  bargaining: 

a.  " Walking  delegates" 

b.  Open  and  closed  shops 

6.  Working  conditions 

7.  Control  over  industry 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  Industrial  Revo- 
lution and  the  introduction  of  the  factory  system  caused 
a  line  of  cleavage  between  the  workers  and  the  owners  of 
the  machinery.  This  has  been  reflected  not  only  in  the 

357 


358  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

development  of  socialistic  movements,  but  also  in  the 
growth  of  trade  unionism.  Modern  capitalistic  organiza- 
tion has  been  attended  by  a  parallel  development  of  labor 
organization. 

The  Development  of  Trade  Unionism. — With  the 
development  of  capitalism  the  worker  ceased  to  own  the 
Situation  instruments  of  production  and  thereby  lost  his 

in  Great  .      .     ,  ,  rr»i_ 

Britain.  position  of  economic  independence.  Ihe  cap- 
italist had  a  surplus  of  wealth  and  in  periods  of  depression 
could  afford  to  wait,  while  often  the  worker  could  not.  The 
helplessness  of  the  individual  worker  soon  brought  a  realiza- 
tion that  in  union  there  lay  strength.  But  in  Great 
Britain,  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
prevalent  economic  philosophy  of  laissez-faire  was  used 
against  the  trade  unions.  Under  the  assumptions  of  the 
classical  school  of  political  economy,  wages  were  fixed  by  the 
supply  of  capital  available  for  the  employment  of  labor.  Any 
arbitrary  interference  with  this  natural  law  of  supply  and 
demand  was  futile.  Accordingly,  labor  organizations  were 
regarded  as  criminal  conspiracies  by  both  the  common  and 
the  statute  law.  Labor  leaders  were  deported  or  sen- 
tenced to  prison.  The  statutes  prohibiting  labor  unions 
were  repealed  in  1825,  but  it  was  not  until  fifty  years  later 
that  they  acquired  an  assured  legal  position.  Trade 
unions  now  enjoy  a  higher  degree  of  freedom  from  legal 
restraint  in  the  United  Kingdom  than  in  most  other  coun- 
tries. It  has  been  written  into  law  that  no  act  in  connec- 
tion with  a  trade  dispute,  which  is  not  criminal  if  committed 
by  an  individual,  shall  be  so  regarded  if  committed  by  two 
or  more  persons  acting  in  combination. 

The  development  of  labor  organization  in  America  has 
not  been  checked  to  any  appreciable  extent  by  legal  restric- 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  359 

tions.  Although  trade  unions  were,  strictly  speaking,  com- 
binations in  restraint  of  trade  under  the  Sherman  Anti- 
trust Law,  this  point  was  never  pushed.  The  , 

Status  in 

great  differences  in  the  labor  legislation  of  the  the  United 
various  states  in  the  American  Union  are 
reflected  in  the  problems  of  labor  unionism.  Moreover, 
uniformity  is  prevented  by  the  overlapping  activities  of 
the  federal  and  state  governments.  The  vexed  question 
of  the  injunction  is  an  illustration.  As  in  Great  Britain, 
there  has  been  much  discussion  concerning  the  liability  of 
trade  unions.  The  Clayton  Act,  which  has  amended  and 
superseded  the  Sherman  Act,  has  been  called  by  some 
writers  the  American  Magna  Charta  of  labor.  It  declares 
that  a  labor  union  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  combination 
in  restraint  of  trade.  Furthermore,  the  Clayton  Act 
restricts  the  uses  of  the  injunction  in  labor  disputes. 

Some  theorists  have  attempted  to  trace  trade  unions 
back  to  the  medieval  guilds;  but  trade  unionism  as  we 
know  it  to-day  does  not  appear  until  after  the  Early  or- 
Industrial  Revolution.  In  the  days  of  manufac-  stations, 
turing  by  hand,  master  workers  and  apprentices  worked 
side  by  side  in  the  same  shop.  With  the  development  of 
industry  in  America  there  appeared  numerous  small  craft 
unions,  in  the  organization  of  which  may  be  read  something 
of  the  fraternal  spirit  of  the  guilds.  Attempts  at  the 
nationalization  of  the  labor  movement  had  appeared  before 
the  Civil  War.  The  early  trade  unionist  movement  in 
America,  however,  temporarily  lost  its  identity  in  the  gen- 
eral uplift  and  communist  movements  of  the  ante-bellum 
period.  The  great  industrial  development  which  followed 
the  Civil  War  was  accompanied  by  a  reorganization  of  labor 
upon  a  vaster  scale  than  was  ever  known  before.  The 


360  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Noble  Order  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  was  founded  by  a 
Philadelphia  tailor  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  1869.  It  was 
at  first  a  secret  organization  with  a  rather  elaborate  ritual. 
This  was  soon  abandoned,  and  the  movement  spread  from 
the  garment  workers  to  those  of  other  trades.  The  ideal 
became  that  of  an  amalgamation  of  all  workers  into  one 
great  industrial  organization.  This  organization  was  for  a 
time  very  powerful  and,  in  1886,  reached  a  membership 
of  over  half  a  million.  Its  government  was  very  highly 
centralized,  and  internal  dissensions  arose  as  well  as  dif- 
ficulties with  local  trade  unions.  Although  its  membership 
and  numbers  rapidly  waned,  the  Knights  of  Labor  rep- 
resented a  landmark  in  the  labor  movement. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor  was  founded  in  1881 

and  grew  rather  slowly  during  the  early  years  of  its  exist- 

ence.    At  the  close  of  the  century,  however, 

Federation     there  were  over  half  a  million  paid  members, 


anc*  over  ^$*ty  trades  were  affiliated  in  the 
organization.  During  the  twentieth  century 
there  was  a  rapid  increase  in  membership.  In  1910  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  enjoyed  a  membership  of 
about  two  millions.  At  the  same  time,  the  total  number 
of  persons  gainfully  employed  was  over  thirty-eight  mil- 
lions. Hence  its  membership  represented  only  about 
five  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the  total  industrial  popula- 
tion. Its  numerical  strength  and  importance,  however, 
were  larger  than  such  a  proportion  would  seem  to  indicate. 
Labor  leaders  claim  that,  in  determining  such  a  percentage, 
there  should  be  eliminated  employers,  clerks,  salaried 
workers,  agricultural  workers,  domestic  servants,  and  other 
extraneous  groups.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  true  that 
the  majority  of  workers  in  America  are  unorganized, 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  361 

although  the  membership  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  numbered  over  four  and  a  half  millions  in  1920. 

The  Knights  of  Labor  was  an  industrial  rather  than  a 
trade  union,  that  is,  it  attempted  an  amalgamation  of  all 
workers  without  regard  to  craft.  The  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
rather  loose  confederation  of  a  number  of  national  trade 
unions.  For  the  most  part  it  is  organized  upon  a  craft 
basis,  although  certain  powerful  affiliated  organizations, 
such  as  the  United  Mine  Workers,  are  not  so  organized. 
The  basic  unit  in  the  organization  is  the  local  trade  union, 
which  seeks  to  include  all  the  workers  of  one  craft  in  a  given 
geographical  district.  Although  these  local  unions  are 
often  united  into  a  state  and  even  into  an  international 
trade  union,  the  national  trade  union  may  be  regarded  as 
the  sovereign  body.  A  great  deal  of  local  autonomy 
exists,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  organization.  At  the  annual 
convention  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  each 
national  trade  union  is  allowed  one  delegate  for  each  four 
thousand  paid-up  members  or  fraction  thereof.  Officers 
are  elected  and  permanent  headquarters  maintained  in 
Washington.  The  revenue  is  derived  from  a  per  capita 
assessment  upon  the  membership  of  the  affiliated  bodies. 

Trade  unions  may  be  classified  according  to  organiza- 
tion and  policy.     The  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 
affords  a  most  unpleasant  contrast  to  the  Amer- 
ican Federation  of  Labor  in  both  these  respects,    tionary 

,  f  •     t      ,    •    i          •  unionism: 

Its  organization  is  that  of  an  industrial  union 


rather  than  that  of  a  trade  or  craft  union.     It 
seeks  to  unite  all  the  workers  of  the  nation  and, 
indeed,  of  the  entire  world  into  one  big  union.    As  con- 
trasted with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  it  has 


362  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

made  its  appeal  to  the  unskilled  and  immigrant  workers. 
It  employs  the  weapon  of  the  general  strike  against  the 
existing  capitalistic  system.  Although  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  insists  upon  the  principle  of  collective 
bargaining  and  resorts  to  the  strike  to  gain  its  object,  it 
does  not  seek  to  overthrow  the  existing  industrial  system. 
The  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World,  however,  would 
abolish  both  the  employer  and  the  wage  system.  The 
pernicious  practice  of  sabotage,  or  destruction  of  property, 
is  openly  advocated  and  secretly  employed  to  gain  the 
desired  end.  The  origin  of  this  term  can  be  found  in  the 
French  word  meaning  wooden  shoe.  "  Dropping  a  monkey 
wrench  into  the  machinery"  is  the  equivalent  American 
expression.  If  the  demands  of  the  worker  are  not  acceded 
to,  he  may  secretly  destroy  the  machinery  or  goods  of  the 
employer.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive  of  a  more 
dastardly  practice.  In  1917  the  American  membership 
in  this  organization  numbered  sixty  thousand.  This  figure 
cannot  be  taken  as  authoritative,  however,  for  the  mem- 
bership of  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World  is  unstable 
and  variable.  Moreover,  the  force  of  public  opinion  and 
the  strong  arm  of  the  law  have  developed  a  policy  of  secrecy 
and  a  resort  to  underground  channels  of  activity. 

The  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World  in  America  cor- 
respond to  the  syndicalists  of  France  and  Italy.    Between 
both  of  these  movements  and  the  Bolshevism 

Syndicalism. 

of  Russia  there  are  certain  points  of  similarity. 
The  term  syndicalism  comes  from  the  French  word  meaning 
labor  union.  Direct  action  upon  the  part  of  the  proletariat, 
or  laboring  class,  against  the  bourgeoisie,  or  middle  class, 
is  advocated  in  the  form  of  the  general  strike  and  sabotage. 
Syndicalism  preaches  class  solidarity  of  all  workers  and 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  363 

discards  national  patriotism.  Indeed,  it  would  destroy  the 
State  as  we  know  it  to-day  and  substitute  for  it  the  col- 
lective ownership  of  industry,  with  government  by  the 
workers. 

The  Demands  of  Labor.— Both  labor  and  capital  are 
equally  essential  in  the  modern  production  of  wealth. 
Instead  of  a  close  and  friendly  cooperation  causes  of 
between  the  workers  and  the  owners  of  the  conflict- 
instruments  of  production,  unfortunately  their  relations 
have  often  been  marked  by  open  conflicts.  Division  of 
labor,  large  scale  production,  and  the  corporate  form  of 
business  organization  have  largely  eliminated  the  former 
personal  relationships  between  employers  and  employees 
which  prevailed  before  the  Industrial  Revolution.  Both 
laborers  and  capitalists  have  at  times  shown  a  considerable 
ignorance  of  the  problems  faced  by  the  other  side.  Self- 
interest  is  a  human,  not  a  class,  characteristic.  Conse- 
quently both  sides  have  been  guilty  of  frequent  displays 
of  selfishness.  Of  recent  years,  however,  a  number  of 
attempts  have  been  made  to  understand  the  problems  and 
point  of  view  of  the  opposing  sides.  To  the  student  of 
American  democracy,  the  interdependence  of  labor  and 
capital  is  self-evident.  Therefore,  it  is  important  to  con- 
sider at  length  some  of  the  more  disturbing  issues  which 
have  served  to  mar  this  harmonious  relationship. 

One  of  the  most  common  causes  of  industrial  disputes 
is  found  in  the  problem  of  wages.  Socialists  have  claimed 
that  labor  is  the  source  of  all  wealth  and  have  , 

Wages. 

sought  to  convert  into  wages  the  entire  stream 
of  national  income.     On  the  other  hand,   conservatives 
contend  that,  unless  increased  wages  cause  increased  pro- 
duction, they  can  not  justly  be  granted  at  the  expense  of 


364  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

rent,  interest,  or  profits.  Economic  theories  of  distribu- 
tion give  various  explanations  of  how  wages  are  determined. 
Assuming  that  there  is  a  competitive  rate  of  wages  for  a 
certain  kind  of  labor  at  a  given  time,  how  can  it  be  deter- 
mined? Can  a  labor  union  raise  wages  above  that  level 
without  unjust  social  and  economic  consequences?  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  a  fact  that  a  number  of  individuals 
and  families  receive  wages  too  low  to  maintain  a  decent 
standard  of  living.  The  exact  wage  that  should  in  fair- 
ness be  granted  to  labor  is  a  matter  for  careful  study  at 
any  given  time  within  any  given  industry.  In  practice, 
tradition  and  compromise  are  important  factors. 

The  effects  of  the  capitalistic  process  upon  labor  are  two- 

fold.   In  the  first  place,  the  invention  of  machinery  makes 

possible  the  production  of  the  same  quantity  of 

of°work:       goods,  or  more,  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  under 


*ne  °^  system  of  production  by  hand.  Hence 
the  gains  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  should  be 
reflected  in  a  shorter  working  day.  Again,  labor  is  more 
fatiguing  under  modern  conditions  of  production.  Division  of 
labor  may  consist  of  endless  repetitions  of  the  same  act, 
so  that  there  is  not  enough  change  to  give  mental  variety 
or  physical  relief.  Moreover,  by  the  use  of  machinery  it 
is  possible  to  speed  up  the  employee  to  his  greatest  exer- 
tion by  forcing  the  human  fingers  to  keep  up  to  those  of 
iron  and  steel.  Under  these  conditions  fatigue  sets  in  early. 
Charts  have  been  traced  to  illustrate  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  fatigue  curve.  During  the  last  few  hours  of  continuous 
labor  the  fatigue  curve  is  highest,  and  hence  the  greatest 
number  of  accidents  occur  at  that  time.  Fatigue  is  physi- 
ological, the  result  of  a  toxin  in  the  blood  caused  by  con- 
tinuous physical  or  mental  exertion.  Rest  is  imperative 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  365 

in  order  to  allow  nature  to  do  the  work  of  recuperation 
and  to  rebuild  the  worn  out  cell  tissue.  A  greater  leisure 
time  is  therefore  necessary  for  both  recreation  and  education. 


COMPRESSOR  GENERATING  AIR-POWER  FOR  DRILLS  IN  THE  COAL  MINES  OF  PA. 

With  the  development  of  trade  unionism  came  the  short- 
ening of  the  working  day.  In  1 847,  the  British  law  The  shorter 
provided  a  ten-hour  day  for  women,  which  time  workmg  day- 
gradually  became  the  working  day  for  men  also.  Although 
the  State  has  determined  the  hours  of  work  in  the  case  of 
women  and  children,  it  has  been  loath  to  fix  the  minimum 
working  day  for  men.  Government  has  hesitated  to  inter- 
fere with  the  right  of  free  contract  in  the  case  of  those  who 
are  strong  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  With  the 
weapon  of  collective  bargaining,  however,  labor  unions 


366  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

have  steadily  reduced  the  length  of  the  working  day  for 
men.  It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  this  varies  not  only 
in  the  different  American  states,  but  also  among  the 
different  occupations.  The  length  of  the  working  day  in 
any  industry  is  a  rough  test  of  the  strength  of  the  labor 
organization  concerned.  Unorganized  trades  suffer  most. 
For  a  number  of  years  the  steel  industry  permitted  long 
hours  of  work  and  even  double  labor  shifts.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  say  definitely  that  any  certain  number  of  hours 
constitute  a  proper  universal  working  day.  Conditions  vary 
in  different  industries,  and  fatigue  sets  in  earlier  in  the 
case  of  the  more  strenuous  occupations.  This  is  another 
reason  for  the  reluctance  of  government  to  fix  a  legal 
working  day.  The  eight-hour  day,  however,  has  won  legal 
recognition  in  most  parts  of  Australia  and  the  favor  of 
public  opinion  in  America.  It  is  felt  that, 

"Eight  hours  for  work,  eight  hours  for  play, 
Eight  hours  for  sleep,  make  up  the  full  day" 

Restriction  of  output  has  been  defended  by  labor  unions 
as  a  counter  weapon  against  the  employers'  policy  of 
speeding  up.  Pace  setting  is  done  by  encouraging 
certain  men  to  work  hard,  and  by  occasionally 
paying  them  higher  wages,  in  order  to  set  a  fast  pace  for 
the  other  workers  on  the  same  machines.  The  abuses  of 
this  system  are  common  in  the  "sweated  "  industries.  The 
employee  who  cannot  keep  up  to  the  pace  is  discharged. 
Organized  labor,  however,  has  retaliated  by  trying  to  decide 
what  amount  of  output  shall  constitute  a  day's  work  in  any 
particular  occupation.  Thus,  the  laying  of  a  certain  number 
of  bricks,  and  no  more,  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  day's 
work  by  the  union  laborer.  Such  a  policy  has  been  regarded 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  367 

as  a  leveling  down  process,  as  compared  with  the  leveling 
up  process  of  pace  setting.  For  this  purpose  the  capacity 
of  the  poorest  worker  may  be  chosen.  Again,  there  may 
be  the  mistaken  economic  philosophy  of  "  making  work". 
The  restriction  of  output  only  apparently  creates  additional 
employment.  Moreover,  it  raises  prices  and  lowers  the  real 
wages  of  all  workers.  Both  restriction  of  output  and 
speeding  up  are  unsocial  and  unfortunate  policies.  Human 
capacities  and  abilities  differ  so  greatly  that  any  fixed  pace 
may  work  injustice. 

Another  bone  of  contention  between  capital  and  labor 
may  be  found  in  the  vague  expression  of  collective  bar- 
gaining.   This  may  be  interpreted  as  the  making 
of  an  agreement  between  two  groups  by  their 


chosen  representatives.     Such  a  broad  inter-   "Walking 

.  *  ,  delegates." 

pretation  would  even  include  such  agreements  as 
international  treaties.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  almost 
impossible  to  obtain  general  agreement  upon  a  specific 
definition  of  what  collective  bargaining  in  industry  implies. 
Labor  seems  to  interpret  collective  bargaining  as  meaning 
the  closed  shop  and  the  right  to  employ  ''walking  dele- 
gates." There  are  many  employers  who  openly  avow 
their  belief  in  collective  bargaining,  but  who  refuse  to  treat 
with  the  professional  labor  leader  who  goes  from  one  group 
to  another  organizing  one  strike  after  another.  They 
declare  their  readiness  to  meet  the  elected  representatives 
of  their  own  workers,  but  refuse  to  deal  with  any  one 
outside  their  own  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  labor  unions 
claim  that  the  principle  of  collective  bargaining  stands  or 
falls  with  the  right  to  employ  a  trained  professional  labor 
leader.  It  is  held  that  no  employee  would  dare  to  organize 
his  fellow  employees  for  a  strike,  or  for  advancing  their 


368  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

claims  against  those  of  the  employer,  because  of  the  risk 
involved  in  such  an  undertaking. 

The  open  shop  is  one  in  which  both  union  and  non-union 
men  may  be  employed  without  discrimination.  The  closed 
open  and  shop  is  one  in  which  only  union  men  are  em- 
dosed  shops.  pioyed  jf  the  employer  agrees  to  take  on 

union  men  only,  it  makes  him  virtually  dependent  upon 
the  unions  for  the  choice  of  his  workers.  Moreover, 
his  power  of  discharge  is  similarly  limited.  The  closed 
shop  approximates  a  labor  monoply  and  gives  the  union 
great  power  over  wages,  hours,  output,  and  general  working 
conditions.  In  a  recent  national  conference  between  labor 
and  capital,  a  split  occurred  upon  the  interpretation  of 
collective  bargaining,  which  labor  held  implied  the  closed 
shop.  The  American  Federation  of  Labor  endorses  the 
closed  shop  as  one  of  its  policies,  while  the  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers  tries  to  further  the  extension 
of  the  open  shop. 

Many  of  the  evils  of  unsanitary  and  dangerous  working 
conditions  may  be  limited  by  prohibitory  legislation.  Later 
Working  chapters  will  discuss  such  problems  as  dangerous 
conditions.  trades>  industrial  risks,  and  the  competition  of 
non-union  labor.  Trade  unions  have,  however,  often 
brought  pressure  to  bear  in  favor  of  social  legislation. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  have  often  been  so  engrossed  in 
the  discussion  of  wages  and  hours  of  work  that  compara- 
tively little  attention  has  been  paid  to  general  working 
conditions.  The  legislative  restrictions  of  the  different 
states  concerning  them  are  often  more  the  work  of  humani- 
tarians than  of  labor  leaders. 

A  new  phase  of  the  problem  of  organized  labor  is  the 
desire  of  the  workers  to  participate  in  the  management  of 


Problems  of  Organized  Labor  369 

industry.  Guild  socialism  illustrates  the  theory  of  the  self- 
governing  work  shop.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  World  War 
a  plan  was  presented  in  Congress  by  which  the 

•it  t  •   i  i  Control 

railroad  workers  might  take  over  the  operation    over 
of  the  national  railroad   system.    This  failed, 
however,     to    meet    with    popular    approval.     But    in 
England  there  has  been  a  long  and  strenuous  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  mine  workers  to  secure  the  nationalization 
of  the  mines.    Although  the  problem  of  control,  or  partici- 
pation in  the  control  of  industry,  has  not  been  of  great 
importance  in  the  past  history  of  labor  movements,  it 
promises  to  be  one  of  the  great  questions  of  the  future. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  disadvantages  does  the  individual  worker  have  in  bar- 
gaining? 

2.  What  was  the  early  attitude  toward  labor  unions  in  Great 
Britain? 

3.  What  is  the  present  attitude  toward  labor  in  that  country? 

4.  Sketch  the  early  development  of  trade  unions  in  America. 

5.  Contrast  an  industrial  with  a  craft  union. 

6.  Explain  the  organization  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

7.  Trace  its  gradual  development. 

8.  What  proportion  of  American  workers  is  organized? 

9.  Compare  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World  with   the 
American  Federation  of  Labor. 

10.  What  is  revolutionary  unionism?     Give  some  examples. 

11.  Give  the  chief  reasons  for  the  conflict  of  interests  between 
labor  and  capital. 

12.  Why  has  the  working  day  become  shorter  since  the  Industrial 
Revolution? 

13.  Explain  pace  setting  and  the  restriction  of  output. 

14.  What  do  you  understand  by  collective  bargaining? 

15.  Upon  what  does  it  depend? 

16.  Do  you  believe  in  "walking  delegates"?    Why  or  why  not? 


370  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

17.  What  have  labor  unions  actually  accomplished  in  this  country? 

18.  How  can  labor  unions  increase  wages? 

19.  Can  wages  be  increased  without  decreasing  the  other  shares 
of  distribution? 

20.  Why  should  the  working  day  be  shorter  now  than  formerly? 

21.  How  much  has  the  labor  union  done  to  improve  working 
conditions? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  Knights  of  Labor. 

2.  The  Clayton  Act  and  its  effect  upon  organized  labor. 

3.  The  organization  and  workings  of  some  trade  union  in  your 
community. 

4.  The  evolution  of  the  eight-hour  day. 

5.  The  open  versus  the  closed  shop. 

6.  Syndicalism  in  Europe. 

7.  The  soviet  idea  in  Russia. 

8.  The  present  labor  situation  in  England. 

9.  A  comparison  of  the  labor  movement  abroad  and  in  America. 
10.  Instances  of  the  participation  of  labor  in  the  management  ot 

industry  in  America. 

REFERENCES 

CARLTON,  F.  T.    History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor. 
ELY,  R.  T.     The  Labor  Movement  in  America. 
HAMILTON,  W.    Current  Economic  Problems. 
HOXIE,  R.  F.     Trade  Unionism. 
MITCHELL,  J.    Organized  Labor. 
SEAGER,  H.  R.    Principles  of  Economics. 
TAUSSIG,  F.  W.     Principles  of  Economics. 
WEBB,  S.  and  B.     History  of  Trade  Unionism. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE  COOPERATION  or  LABOR  AND  CAPITAL 

I.  Weapons  of  industrial  conflict 

1.  Boycotts  and  blacklists 

2.  Strikes  and  lockouts 

3.  Use  of  the  injunction 

II.  Social  cost  of  industrial  conflict 

1 .  To  the  employer 

2.  To  the  worker 

3.  To  the  public 

III.  The  promotion  of  industrial  peace 

1 .  Commissions  on  industrial  relations : 

a.  Their  origin 

b.  Effect  of  World  War 

2.  Compulsory  arbitration: 

a.  New  Zealand 

b.  Kansas  Court  of  Industrial  Relations 

3.  Shop  committees : 

a.  The  Whitley  plan 

b.  Other  examples 

4.  Profit  sharing: 

a.  A  common  form 

b.  Other  methods 

IV.  The  cooperative  movement 

1 .  Its  origin 

2.  Success  in  Europe 

3.  Situation  in  the  United  States 

4.  Conclusion 

371 


372  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Another  problem  of  American  democracy  is  the  recon- 
ciliation of  the  apparently  conflicting  interests  of  labor  and 
capital.  With  the  growth  of  labor  unions  there  has  gone 
on  the  development  of  employers'  associations.  Labor 
disputes,  like  those  of  international  polity,  admit  of  two 
methods  of  settlement.  On  the  one  hand,  there  may  be  an 
appeal  to  force  or  a  resort  to  industrial  conflict.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  an  appeal  to  reason,  or  an 
adjustment  by  arbitration  and  compromise.  Industrial  as 
well  as  military  wars  entail  an  enormous  loss  to  productive 
societies. 

Weapons  of  Industrial  Conflict. — A  boycott  is  the 
organized  refusal  of  a  number  of  persons  to  purchase  goods 
B  from  certain  individual  producers  or  corporations, 

and  It  may  be  used  by  the  general  public  as  a  revolt 

against  monopoly  price.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  be  used  by  a  group  of  workers  or  by  a  trade  union  in 
order  to  bring  an  employer  to  their  terms  by  checking  his 
sales  and  profits.  The  boycott  may  be  positive  as  well  as 
negative.  It  may  take  the  form  of  patronizing  only  those 
manufacturers  who  are  sympathetic  toward  labor. 
Furthermore,  workers  may  be  urged  to  buy  only  union- 
made  articles.  Again,  the  Consumers'  League  publishes  a 
"white  list"  containing  the  names  of  the  firms  which  do 
not  violate  factory  laws  or  employ  child  labor.  The  black 
list  is  a  counter  weapon,  which  the  employers  can  use 
against  the  boycott  of  the  employees.  Employers  may  list 
the  names  of  former  workers  who  have  become  objection- 
able because  of  union  activities  or  for  some  other  causes. 
Such  men  may  also  be  refused  employment  by  other 
employers. 

Both  strikes  and  lockouts  mean  an  organized  cessation 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital 


373 


of  work.  The  causes  and  effects  of  these  may  be  the  same; 
but  in  the  first  case,  the  initiative  is  taken  by  the  workers 
and,  in  the  latter  case,  by  the  employers.  When  strikes  and 
the  agreement  is  made  by  the  individual  and  not  lockouts- 
by  the  process  of  collective  bargaining,  such  a  situation  is 
impossible.  Labor  leaders  have  vigorously  defended  the 
right  to  strike  and  have  attributed  many  of  the  gains  of 


A  MOB  OF  STRIKERS 

labor  to  this  weapon.  The  local  union  regularly  collects 
dues  in  order  to  pay  strike  benefits  during  such  crises.  The 
various  employers'  associations  also  have  funds  with  which 
to  fight  strikes.  Frequently  the  capitalist  is  in  a  much  better 
position  than  the  laborer  to  wait  and  suffer  the  losses  of 
unproductive  idleness.  If  the  employer  does  not  care  to 
shut  down  his  plant,  he  is  forced  to  employ  non-union  men. 


374  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Strike  breakers  may  be  imported  on  a  considerable  scale, 
although  they  are  derided  as  " scabs"  by  the  strikers  and 
their  sympathizers.  Picketing  is  an  attempt  of  the  strikers 
to  intercept  the  other  workers  and  to  get  them  to  quit  their 
positions.  It  may  take  the  form  of  persuasion,  but  fre- 
quently the  practice  leads  to  intimidation  and  to  acts  of 
violence. 

Another  weapon  of  the  employer  is  the  injunction.  This 
is  an  order  from  the  court  to  do,  or  to  cease  from  doing, 
Use  of  the  some*  particular  thing.  Any  one  who  violates 
injunction.  such  an  Ofder  becomes  guilty  of  contempt  of 

court  and  can  be  punished  without  recourse  to  the  usual 
cumbersome  judicial  routine.  The  injunction  is  designed 
to  permit  quick  action  against  something  which  threatens 
to  result  in  irremediable  damage.  Although  some  specific 
act  may  be  mentioned,  " blanket"  injunctions  have  some- 
times been  issued.  Labor  resents  the  frequent  use  by  tin- 
courts  of  this  emergency  power. 

Social  Cost  of  Industrial  Conflict. — Even  assuming 
that  the  strike  is  attended  by  no  loss  of  property  upon  the 
TO  the  part  of  the  employer,  the  cessation  of  production 
jmpioyer.  ^^  no^.  mean  fae  cessation  of  expenses.  Finan- 
cial losses  take  the  place  of  profits.  Moreover,  the  loss 
may  be  more  or  less  permanent,  because  former  customers 
may  have  formed  the  habit  of  purchasing  elsewhere.  Thus, 
in  1902,  during  the  great  anthracite  coal  strike  a  number 
of  manufacturers  had  new  furnaces  installed  in  order  that 
they  might  burn  bituminous  coal.  After  the  strike,  they 
continued  the  consumption  of  soft  coal.  Even  if  the 
employer  does  emerge  victorious  from  the  strike,  his  staff 
of  regular  employees  is  shattered.  A  number  of  his  best 
workmen  have  gone  elsewhere. 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital  375 

If  this  strike  is  protracted,  it  may  be  nothing  less  than 
a  calamity  to  the  worker  and  his  family.   The  strike  benefits 
provided  by  the  union  are  a  very  slim  and  pre-   TO  the 
carious  source  of  revenue.     Past  savings   are   worker- 
soon  used  up  in  providing  for  the  present  needs  of  this 
period  of  enforced  idleness.    If  the  strike  is  successful,  the 
worker  may  be  repaid  in  the  form  of  increased  wages.    If 
the  strike  is  unsuccessful,  he  may  suffer  not  only  financial 
loss  but  also  possible  loss  of  employment. 

The  public  is  affected  in  many  ways  by  a  strike.  The 
most  obvious  effect  is  in  the  curtailing  of  production. 
Considerable  hardship  may  be  suffered  if  the  TO  the 
commodity  or  service  produced  is  essential.  pubUc- 
Moreover,  when  the  wheels  of  production  again  revolve, 
the  consumer  may  find  that  the  price  of  the  goods  has 
been  raised  to  pay  for  the  losses  of  the  strike,  or  for 
the  increase  in  wages  granted.  Finally,  the  general  spirit 
of  violence  may  lead  to  the  destruction  of  property,  if  not 
of  human  lives.  Crime  and  poverty  rates  for  the  affected 
locality  show  an  increase  during  such  industrial  crises.  A 
spirit  of  class  bitterness  is  engendered,  which  may  continue 
long  after  the  causes  of  the  dispute  have  been  forgotten. 

The  Promotion  of  Industrial  Peace. — From  May  to 
October,    1902,   the  country  suffered  severely  from   the 
effects  of  a  strike  of  the  anthracite  miners  in    Commis. 
Pennsylvania.      Finally.    President    Roosevelt   ?io.ns  on , 

industrial 

threw  aside  precedent  and  appointed  the  famous  relations: 
Anthracite  Coal  Strike  Commission.  Both  sides  Theirori^n' 
agreed  to  accept  the  final  verdict,  and  the  miners  went 
back  to  work.  A  great  wave  of  popular  approval  showed 
that  the  time  was  ripe  for  government  action  of  some  sort 
to  facilitate  better  industrial  relations  in  essential  indus- 


376  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tries.  At  present,  most  of  the  individual  states  have  passed 
laws  which  provide  various  opportunities  for  industrial 
conciliation  or  arbitration.  These  may  take  the  form  of 
permanent  state  boards  or  commissions  upon  industrial 
relations,  or  they  may  provide  for  the  appointment  of  such 
commissions  temporarily  for  the  duration  of  an  industrial 
conflict. 

The  World  War  gave  this  whole  movement  a  new  impetus, 
for  the  cooperation  of  labor  and  capital  became  imperative. 
Effect  of  It  was  evident  that  strikes  and  lockouts  would 
World  War.  prevent  or  delay  the  successful  conclusion  of 
the  war.  A  War  Labor  Conference  Board  was  appointed 
and  had  its  first  sitting  in  February,  1918.  It  consisted 
of  five  members  representing  the  employers  of  the  nation, 
nominated  by  the  National  Industrial  Conference,  five  rep- 
resentatives of  organized  labor,  nominated  by  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  and  two  other  members.  This  body 
was  continued  in  the  National  War  Labor  Board,  which 
tried  to  harmonize  the  interests  of  employers  and  employees 
during  the  War.  After  the  armistice,  this  body  ceased  to 
function  and  President  Wilson  called  a  National  Industrial 
Conference  in  Washington,  October,  1919.  This  was  a 
three-fold  body,  representing  labor,  employers,  and  the 
general  public.  A  steel  strike  was  then  in  progress,  and 
the  conference  was  ended  by  the  abrupt  withdrawal  of  the 
labor  group  after  it  had  failed  to  secure  acceptance  of  its 
interpretation  of  collective  bargaining.  With  the  return  of 
the  railroads  to  private  ownership,  provision  was  made  for 
the  Federal  Labor  Board.  In  a  previous  chapter,  its  three- 
fold composition  has  been  described. 

Compulsory  arbitration  is  one  way  out  of  industrial,  as 
well  as  of  military,  conflicts.  The  pioneer  in  this  field 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital  377 

was  New  Zealand,  which  passed  a  law  in  1894  that  made 
strikes  and  lockouts  misdemeanors.  Employers,  as  well 
as  employees,  are  organized  into  what  are  known 
as  "  industrial  unions."  In  case  of  an  industrial 
dispute  either  side  may  ask  for  the  intervention 
of  special  officers,  who  are  known  as  commis- 
sioners of  conciliation,  three  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the 
governor  for  the  whole  country.  One  of  these  commissioners 
proceeds  to  the  scene  of  the  dispute  and  tries  to  effect  a 
settlement.  If  his  individual  efforts  are  unsuccessful,  he  then 
organizes  a  council  of  conciliation,  composed  of  an  equal 
number  of  representatives  from  both  sides.  If  either  side 
refuses  to  accept  the  decision  of  this  body,  a  final  appeal  is 
made  to  the  central  court  of  arbitration.  The  presiding 
officer  is  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  and  the  other  two 
members  are  appointed  by  the  governor  to  represent  both 
sides  of  the  controversy.  This  court  is  a  very  important 
tribunal  and  has  power  to  examine  a  company's  books  and 
to  subpoena  witnesses.  There  is  no  appeal  from  its  award, 
which  becomes  binding  upon  both  parties  for  a  specified 
length  of  time.  Indeed,  the  award  may  be  extended  to 
embrace  other  trades  in  the  same  locality  or  throughout  the 
country.  An  attempt  to  change  the  conditions  by  a  strike 
or  lockout  is  a  serious  and  punishable  misdemeanor. 

In  January,  1920,  the  legislature  of  the  state  of  Kansas 
passed  an  act  providing  for  compulsory  arbitration  in  indus- 
trial disputes  affecting  public  interest.  The  act 
establishes  a  Court  of  Industrial  Relations,  which 


can  decide  disputes  in  the  case  of  vital  industries. 


If  necessary,  it  can  take  control  of  the  industries 

where  the  rulings  of  the  court  are  not  obeyed.    A  group  of 

individuals  may  stop  work,  but  concerted  action  in  the 


378  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

form  of  an  organized  strike  to  hinder  the  operation  of  such 
an  industry  is  unlawful.  The  three  members  of  this  court 
are  chosen  by  the  governor  of  the  state.  Although  this  law 
has  been  bitterly  attacked  by  organized  labor,  the  experi- 
ment is  being  watched  with  great  interest  by  its  advocates 
in  other  states.  It  articulates  the  new  feeling  that  the  public 
has  certain  rights  in  an  industrial  conflict,  which  can  no 
longer  be  construed  as  "  a  private  war  between  capital  and 
labor/1 

The  War  brought  home  to  Great  Britain  also  the  neces- 
sity for  a  closer  cooperation  between  capital  and  labor. 

A  committee  of  Parliament  drew  up  what  was 

known  as  the  Whitley  plan.  This  provides  not 
WMtiey  oniy  for  national  joint  industrial  councils  of 

employers  and  employees  in  the  different  trades, 
but  also  for  district  and  workshop  committees.  In  each  case 
the  council  is  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  representa- 
tives of  the  employers  and  employees,  with  an  impartial 
chairman.  The  Colorado  Industrial  Plan,  adopted  some 
time  ago  by  several  Rockefeller  interests,  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  English  plan.  Representatives  are  chosen  by 
secret  ballot  from  among  the  employees  of  each  plant.  Joint 
committees  of  the  representatives  and  an  equal  number  of 
the  officers  of  the  company  are  organized  in  each  plant. 
As  recently  as  1910  the  Hart,  Schaffner  and  Marx  Com- 
pany formulated  a  plan  for  industrial  conciliation  and  arbi- 
other  tration  in  connection  with  the  United  Garment 

Workers.  When  a  grievance  arises,  the  worker 
reports  the  fact  to  his  representative  who  takes  up  the 
matter  with  the  shop  superintendent.  If  the  matter  is  not 
settled,  it  can  be  carried  before  a  pair  of  delegates  who 
represent  both  the  employer  and  the  employee.  The  final 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital  379 

authority  resides  in  the  Trade  Board  which  consists  of 
eleven  members,  all  of  whom  except  the  chairman  must  be 
in  the  employ  of  the  company.  Of  this  number  five  are 
selected  by  the  company  and  five  by  the  employees.  Numer- 
ous other  illustrations  may  be  found  of  the  democratic 
organization  of  modern  industry,  and  of  the  participation 
by  the  workers  in  its  control.  Details  of  organization  differ, 
but  there  are  two  general  characteristics.  In  the  first  place, 
as  contrasted  with  governmental  commissions,  this  is  a 
movement  from  the  bottom  up,  not  superimposed  from 
above.  In  the  second  place,  there  is  a  greater  chance  to 
observe  industrial  difficulties  and  to  check  them  before  the 
situation  becomes  serious.  It  is  especially  true  in  the  case 
of  industrial  conflict  that  "an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth 
a  pound  of  cure." 

In  the  case  of  the  White  Motor  Company  and  the 
Browning  Company  of  Cleveland,  not  only  has  the  shop 
committee  been  introduced,  but  also  the  prin- 
ciple of  profit  sharing.    In  the  case  of  the  latter    sharing: 


company,  profits  are  shared  every  three  months, 
and  the  percentage  allowed  each  worker  increases 
with  his  length  of  service.  The  company's  balance  sheet  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  shop  committee  for  consideration 
and  discussion.  The  integrity  of  the  officers  of  the  company 
is  unquestioned  by  the  employees.  Indeed,  confidence  and 
fair  play  are  essential  in  any  plan  of  shop  management  or 
profit  sharing.  The  purpose  of  profit  sharing  is  to  give  the 
employee  an  added  incentive  to  efficient  production.  The 
most  common  arrangement  has  been  what  is  known  as  the 
sliding  scale  of  wages  with  a  standard  minimum  wage. 
The  percentage  of  profit  that  an  employee  is  to  share  is 
determined  in  advance,  but  the  actual  payment  is  not 


380  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

made  until  sometime  afterward  when  the  books  have  been 
settled.  The  sliding  scale  of  wages  is  generally  deter- 
mined by  the  price  of  the  product.  Such  an  arrangement 
does  not  always  work  well,  however,  for  profits  do  not 
always  vary  directly  with  prices. 

Some  employers  have  attempted  to  share  all  the  returns 
with  the  employees.  Such  a  scheme  has  not  been  found 
other  to  work  well,  for  while  the  employees  are  willing 

to  share  the  profits,  they  are  usually  not  willing 
or  able  to  share  the  losses.  A  smaller  degree  of  profit  shar- 
ing for  the  employee,  coupled  with  the  guarantee  of  a 
minimum  wage,  has  been  found  to  be  a  more  workable 
compromise.  Profit  sharing  may  take  the  form  of  an  issue 
of  stock  as  well  as  the  payment  of  money  wages.  This  has 
been  practiced  for  a  number  of  years  by  the  John  B.  Stetson 
Hat  Company  of  Philadelphia.  Another  form  of  profit 
sharing  can  be  found  in  France,  where  sometimes  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  profits  is  placed  in  an  insurance  fund  for 
the  protection  of  the  employees  against  ill  health  or  old  age. 
In  1914  the  Ford  Motor  Company  announced  its  intention 
to  distribute  annually  ten  million  dollars  to  its  workers  in 
addition  to  their  usual  wages.  Such  schemes  of  profit  shar- 
ing promise  much  for  the  future.  At  present,  they  have 
been  worked  out  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  case  of  the 
skilled  industries,  and  only  with  successful  companies.  As 
the  degree  of  profit  shared  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
employee's  length  of  service,  the  effect  of  the  plan  is  to 
diminish  the  great  labor  turnover.  Profit  sharing  makes 
little  appeal  to  the  roving  and  mobile  group  of  laborers. 

The  Cooperative  Movement. — Labor  copartnership 
or  cooperation  goes  a  step  further  than  profit  sharing  and 
attempts  to  dispense  with  the  employer  and  to  absorb  private 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital  381 

profits  entirely.  The  movement  may  be  said  to  date  from 
1844,  when  the  famous  Rochdale  Cooperative  Store  was 
founded  by  twenty-eight  pioneers.  The  plan 
devised  by  this  little  group  of  flannel  weavers 
became  the  model  for  thousands  of  similar  cooperative 
stores  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  capital  necessary  for 
the  undertaking  was  subscribed  in  small  shares  by  pro- 
spective purchasers.  A  fixed  rate  of  five  per  cent  was  to 
be  paid  on  this  capital  before  any  profits  should  be  declared. 
Democracy  x>f  management  is  illustrated  in  the  cooperative 
plan  by  the  accepted  principle  of  one  person,  one  vote. 
The  prices  charged  for  goods  in  the  cooperative  stores  are 
the  current  prices  of  the  locality.  At  the  end  of  a  quarter 
profits  are  computed  over  and  above  the  expenses  of 
management  and  the  interest  upon  the  capital  stock. 
The  surplus  is  divided  among  the  stockholders  in  propor- 
tion to  the  purchases  made  and  not  according  to  the 
amount  of  stock  held. 

From  a  very  small  beginning  the  Rochdale  Cooperative 
Stores  have  grown  to  be  a  great  enterprise.  They  have 
increased  enormously  in  numbers,  membership,  success  in 
capital  invested,  and  in  their  scope  of  work.  It  Europe- 
is  a  notable  fact  that  the  British  cooperative  stores  can 
secure  upon  their  managing  committees  men  of  sufficient 
business  ability  to  make  the  scheme  a  success.  Cooper- 
ative retail  stores  were  followed  by  cooperative  wholesale 
societies.  This  was  begun  in  1864  and  its  success  was 
almost  immediate.  From  buying  its  goods  wholesale  from 
manufacturers,  the  society  soon  passed  into  the  stage 
where  it  could  do  its  own  manufacturing.  It  now  manu- 
factures food  products,  shoes,  clothing,  and  it  even  owns 
its  own  ships  and  tea  plantations  in  Ceylon.  The  English 


382  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Cooperative  Wholesale  Society  was  followed  a  few  years 
later  by  one  in  Scotland  which  has  been  equally  successful. 
In  Denmark,  the  dairy  farmers  have  organized  cooperative 
creameries,  while  in  Germany  cooperative  banking  has  had 
its  highest  development. 

In  no  other  country  has  cooperation  among  consumers 
been  carried  so  far  as  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  no  other 
_  4.  country  has  it  been  so  little  advanced  as  in  the 

Situation 

in  United  United  States.  The  better  organization  of  retail 
business  in  American  cities  has  militated  against 
the  cooperative  stores  movement.  Again,  a  less  homoge- 
neous and  settled  population  has  been  another  factor  in  the 
situation.  Finally,  the  higher  wages  of  American  workmen 
have  not  made  economical  consumption  so  imperative  as 
in  Europe.  With  the  increased  cost  of  living,  however, 
and  the  advent  of  war-time  profiteering,  a  considerable 
impetus  was  given  to  the  cooperative  movement  in  Amer- 
ica. But  perhaps  the  most  serious  drawback  to  this  move- 
ment in  America  is  the  failure  of  cooperation  in  the  field 
of  production.  It  is  here  that  the  United  States  has  most 
signally  failed. 

In  concluding  our  discussion  of  the  cooperative  relations 
that  should  exist  in  general  between  labor  and  capital,  it 
„  ,  .  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  words  of  Theodore 

Conclusion. 

Roosevelt,  whose  whole  life  exemplified  a  passion 
for  social  justice.  Let  him  speak  for  himself:  "In  our 
industrial  activities,  alike  of  farmer,  wageworker,  and 
business  man,  our  aim  should  be  cooperation  among  our- 
selves and  control  by  the  State  to  the  degree  necessary, 
but  not  beyond  the  degree  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent 
tyranny  and  yet  to  encourage  and  reward  individual 


The  Cooperation  of  Labor  and  Capital  383 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Review  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  industrial  disputes. 

2.  In  what  ways  may  they  be  settled? 

3.  Explain  some  of  the  weapons  of  the  employer. 

4.  Explain  some  of  the  weapons  of  the  employee. 

5.  Illustrate  some  of  the  evil  consequences  of  strikes. 

6.  Show  the  cost  to  both  employer  and  employee. 

7.  Show  the  advantages  of  industrial  cooperation  over  industrial 
•conflict. 

8.  Show  how  capital  and  labor  are  mutually  dependent. 

9.  Name  some  of  the  commissions  of  the  federal  government 
upon  industrial  relations.     Explain  the  functions  of  each. 

10.  Explain  the  compulsory  arbitration  plan  of  New  Zealand. 

11.  What  has  been  done  along  this  line  in  the  United  States? 

12.  Explain  the  Colorado  Industrial  Plan. 

13.  What  are  the  advantages  of  shop  committees? 

14.  What  are  the  advantages  of  profit  sharing? 

15.  What  is  the  most  common  method  of  sharing  profits? 

16.  Explain  some  other  forms  of  profit  sharing. 

17.  What  limits  do  you  see  to  the  extension  of  the  principle  of 
profit  sharing? 

1 8.  Explain  the  Rochdale  Cooperative  Stores. 

19.  Where  has  the  movement  reached  its  greatest  success? 

20.  Why  has  not  the  cooperative  movement  made  greater  progress 
in  the  United  States? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  use  of  the  injunction  in  labor  disputes. 

2.  The  social  cost  of  a  recent  strike. 

3.  The  National  War  Labor  Board. 

4.  The  Kansas  Court  of  Industrial  Relations. 
'  5.  The  Whitley  Plan  of  Great  Britain. 

6.  Plans  of  employees'  representation  in  organizations  with  which 
you  are  familiar. 

7.  Concrete  illustrations  of  profit  sharing  in  your  community. 

8.  Examples  of  Roosevelt's  attitude  toward  labor  and  capital. 

9.  The  Adamson  Act  and  its  method. 


384  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

10.  The  present  attitude  of  government  toward  labor  and  capital 
in  America. 

REFERENCES 

CARLTON,  F.  C.    History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor. 
FAY,  C.  F.     Cooperation  at  Home  and  Abroad. 
OILMAN,  N.  P.    Profit  Sharing. 
GILMAN,  N.  P.    A  Dividend  to  Labor. 
HAMILTON,  W.     Current  Economic  Problems. 
SCHLOSS,  D.  F.    Methods  of  Industrial  Remuneration. 
TAUSSIG,  F.  W.    Principles  of  Economics. 
WEBB,  C.     Industrial  Cooperation. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  CONSERVATION  OF  LABOR 

I.  The  early  situation  in  England 

1.  Social  effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution 

2.  Parliamentary  legislation 

II.  Child  labor  in  the  United  States 

1 .  History  and  extent 

2.  Causes  and  remedies 

3.  The  effects 

4.  Recent  legislation 

5.  A  model  law 
HE.  Women  in  industry 

1.  Resemblance  to  child  labor 

2.  The  sweat  shop 

3.  Low  wages 

4.  New  occupations 
IV.  Welfare  work 

1.  Meaning 

2.  Illustrations 

A  consideration  of  the  problem  of  the  conservation  of 
human  labor  reveals  a  number  of  maladjustments — 
economic,  social,  and  political — in  American  democracy. 
The  exploitation  of  women  and  children  in  industry,  the 
sweat  shop,  low  wages,  dangerous  occupations,  and  unem- 
ployment are  phenomena  illustrating  lack  of  adjustment 
in  human  society.  The  economic  and  social  effects  of  such 
conditions  are  reflected  in  low  standards  of  living,  in  indus- 
trial accidents,  and  in  general  economic  and  social  dis- 

Z  385 


386  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

content.     The  political  phase  of  the  problem  is  summed  up 

in  the  word  "  regulation."     Government  regulation  of  cer- 

tain industrial  conditions  is  essential  to  the  preservation  of 

many  workers  from  physical,  as  well  as  social,  degeneracy. 

The  Early  Situation  in  England.  —  The  early  social 

effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  upon  England  were 

alarming.     The  first  factories  were  unhealthful 

effects  of       and  the  housing  conditions  equally  bad.    Hours 


of  labor  were  so  long  that  a  working  day  of 
twelve,  thirteen,  and  fourteen  hours  was  not 
unusual.  Great  evils  due  to  child  labor  and  women  in  indus- 
try sprang  into  existence.  Children  were  sent  into  the 
factories  by  their  parents  at  the  age  of  eight  and  indeed 
younger.  Pauper  children  from  the  poor  houses  were 
bound  over  to  the  manufacturers  into  a  virtual  slavery. 
They  were  given  food  of  the  coarsest  description,  often 
eaten  while  the  machinery  was  in  motion.  The  children 
were  abused  and  driven  to  their  work  which  lasted  twelve 
hours  a  day.  Accidents  were  frequent,  disease  common, 
and  the  excessive  toil  often  put  an  early  end  to  their 
unhappy  lot.  In  the  mines  equally  bad  conditions  were 
found  by  an  investigating  committee.  Women  and  men 
worked  side  by  side  almost  naked  in  the  damp  unwhole- 
some shafts  of  the  mine.  A  part  of  the  work  of  the  smaller 
women  and  children  was  to  drag  carts  of  coal  through  the 
underground  passages  frequently  three  feet  or  less  in 
height.  Little  girls  carried  a  halfhundred  weight  of  coal 
up  steep  ladders  to  the  surface.  A  mere  recital  of  this 
testimony  before  Parliament  made  unnecessary  any  dis- 
cussion of  the  desirability  of  reform  in  mining  conditions. 
But  in  spite  of  the  real  dangers  of  the  new  industrial 
conditions,  England  was  rather  loath  to  pass  social  legisla- 


The  Conservation  of  Labor  387 

tion    for   their   betterment.     The   laissez-faire   theory   of 
government  was  popular.     It  held  that  government  regula- 
tion of  industrial  conditions  would  interfere  with 
England's  industrial  supremacy.    This  attitude   taryiegis- 

•  11  .         ,         ,.  lation. 

was  consistent  with  the  national  policy  of  free 
trade  and  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws.  Greedy  manufac- 
turers prophesied  disaster  if  they  should  be  deprived  of 
their  supply  of  female  labor.  But  the  fear  of  physical 
degeneracy  of  the  workers  at  length  made  government 
action  imperative.  A  famous  factory  law  was  passed  the 
year  following  the  Great  Reform  Bill  of  1832.  No  chil- 
dren under  nine  years  of  age  were  to  be  employed,  and 
those  from  nine  to  thirteen  were  to  work  only  eight  hours 
a  day.  Young  persons  from  thirteen  to  eighteen  were  not 
to  work  over  twelve  hours,  and  none  of  these  at  night.  A 
corps  of  inspectors  was  created,  and  factory  regulation 
became  a  reality.  A  subsequent  act  of  1847  limited  the 
work  of  women  to  ten  hours  a  day.  Since  it  was  unprofit- 
able to  work  the  factories  by  men  alone,  without  the  aid 
of  women  and  children,  a  ten-hqur  day  gradually  became 
the  common  standard  for  all.  In  1842  a  law  had  already 
been  passed  regulating  labor  in  mines.  It  prohibited  all 
underground  work  by  females  and  by  boys  under  thirteen. 
In  recent  years  the  British  Parliament  has  passed  other 
factory  laws,  and  the  new  era  of  government  regulation 
has  been  strikingly  characterized  by  an  increasing  amount 
of  social  and  humanitarian  legislation. 

Child  Labor  in  the  United  States.— The  early  effects 
of  the  factory  system  in  America  somewhat  resembled  the 
conditions     already     described     in     England.    History 
Although   the  opening  of  our  mines  was  not    ! 
attended  by  such  horrors  as  prevailed  in  the  Old  World, 


388 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 


the  early  situation  in  the  textile  mills  was  reprehensible. 
In  New  England,  where  manufacturing  began,  children 
under  sixteen  often  worked  twelve,  thirteen,  and  fourteen 
hours  a  day.  The  first  important  legislation  upon  child 
labor  in  this  country  was  passed  by  Massachusetts  in  1836. 
More  stringent  laws  were  subsequently  enacted,  and  other 

states  followed  her  ex- 
ample. But  America 
labors  under  a  peculiar 
disadvantage  in  securing 
such  legislation.  Many 
social  questions,  which 
in  Europe  are  matters 
of  national  legislation, 
in  our  own  country  fall 
within  the  sphere  of  state 
action.  Hence  great 
variations  occur  in  the 
realm  of  laws  dealing 
with  child  labor,  women 
in  industry,  and  like 
problems.  The  action 
of  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  such  matters 
can  be  obtained  only 
by  a  constitutional 
amendment,  or  by  a  liberal  interpretation  of  its  control 
over  interstate  commerce.  At  present,  therefore,  the  child 
labor  situation  varies  with  the  different  laws  of  the 
different  states.  New  England,  which  in  this  regard 
formerly  held  an  unenviable  reputation,  has  now  by  appro- 
priate legislation  materially  improved  the  child  labor 


A  BREAKER  BOY 


The  Conservation  of  Labor 


389 


situation.  With  the  growth  of  an  industrial  South,  this 
evil  has  appeared  in  the  southern  cotton  mills  to  an  alarm- 
ing extent.  Much  of  the  cotton  is  also  picked  by  child 
labor.  In  several  southern  states  the  National  Child 
Labor  Committee  estimates  that  half  of  the  children 
between  ten  and  thirteen  years  of  age  in  that  section  may 


A  CHILD  CARRYING  A  MAN'S  LOAD 

be  classified  as  wage  earners.  A  large  proportion  of  child 
labor  is  used  in  agriculture,  but  this  is  not  considered  so 
harmful  in  its  physical  effects  as  life  in  the  mill.  Many 
children  in  country  regions  leave  school,  temporarily  or 
permanently,  for  the  occupation  of  fruit  and  berry-picking. 
Many  are  also  at  work,  legally  or  illegally,  in  the  great 
canneries  of  the  South  and  Middle  States. 


3QO  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  introduction  of  machinery  and  the  minute  sub- 
division of  labor  accompanying  the  factory  system  lessen 
Causes  and   the  need  for  the  skilled  artisan.     Little  strength 
remedies.      ancj  intelligence  are  required  to  feed  and  attend 
many  machines  in  the  modern  factory.     Hence  the  labor 
of  children  will  often  suffice  in  modern  industrial  life.     As 
compared  with  that  of  men,  such  labor  is  cheap  and  plenti- 
ful, and  it  is  therefore,  necessary  to  enact  special  legisla- 
tion in  order  to  protect  such  workers,  who  often  fall  a  prey 
to  the  thoughtless  or  selfish  employer.     An  indifferent 
public  is  a  second  factor  in  the  child  labor  problem.     Cheap 
goods  will  sell  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  such  cheapness  is 
often  secured  at  the  price  of  the  child's  health  and  welfare. 
The  Consumers'  League  has  done  much  in  a  campaign 
of  popular  education  to  inform  the  public  concerning  the 
social  cost  of  such  production.     It  has  an  honor  list  of 
industrial  firms,  whose  working  conditions  are  good,  and 
whose   patronage    is    worthy    of    public   Approval.     The 
Christmas  slogan  of  "Shop  early"  has  accomplished  much 
good  for  the  young  men  and  women  employed  in  depart- 
ment stores.    A  third  factor  in  the  problem  is  the  neces- 
sity for  self-support.     Poverty  is  one  cause  of  child  labor 
because  the  child's  small  wages  are  often  needed  to  sup- 
plement the  family  income.     Again,  the  child  himself  may 
be  glad  to  leave  school  because  it  does  not  appeal  to  him. 
It  is  often  far  removed  from  practical  life,  and  the  discipline 
is  irksome.    Later,  this  short-sighted  policy  will  be  apparent, 
when  the  child  who  has  remained  in  school  forges  ahead 
of  those  who  leave  before  the  course  is  completed.     It  is 
perfectly  true,  however,  that  the  modern  school  should 
provide  a  curriculum  sufficiently  diversified  to  appeal  to 
the  needs  of  all  classes  of  children. 


The  Conservation  of  Labor  391 

The  effects  of  child  labor  are  injurious  to  the  child,  to 
society,  and  to  industry.  Even  under  the  most  favorable 
working  conditions,  such  labor  is  highly  injurious  The 
from  the  physical  point  of  view.  Childhood  is  effects- 
the  period  of  physical  growth  requiring  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air,  freedom,  and  activity.  It  is  also  the  period  of 
mental  growth  and  development.  The  monotony  of 
repeated  operations  of  the  same  character  is  a  poor  sub- 
stitute for  self-expression  and  intellectual  training.  Again, 
in  the  factory  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the  child's  sur- 
roundings is  frequently  bad,  and  he  becomes  acquainted 
with  many  existing  evils  before  the  age  of  innocent  child- 
hood has  passed.  In  the  second  place,  child  labor  has 
injurious  effects  upon  society.  It  tends  to  break  up 
family  life  by  taking  the  child  out  of  his  normal  place 
in  the  home.  The  young  wage  earner  very  quickly 
tends  to  become  independent  of  parental  authority.  His 
opportunity  to  rise  is  limited,  and  he  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  low  wages  and  standards.  It  is  also  well 
to  remember  that  this  army  of  child  laborers  will 
become  the  fathers  and  mothers  of  the  next  generation, 
and  that  they  are  not  receiving  proper  training  for  their 
future  in  society.  Finally,  a  word  should  be  said  of  the 
effect  of  this  problem  upon  industry.  Child  labor  in  the 
long  run  is  not  always  the  cheapest  labor.  It  lowers  the 
efficiency  of  the  worker,  for,  generally  speaking,  every 
dollar  earned  before  the  age  of  fourteen  is  taken  from  later 
earning  capacity.  Moreover,  the  labor  of  children  is  waste- 
ful. They  are  unreliable  and  their  carelessness  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  accidents. 

Most  of  our  recent  child  labor  laws  have  been  passed  since 
1895.     A  National  Child  Labor  Committee,  organized  in 


392  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

1904,  has  urged  reform  in  many  states  and  suggested  model 
laws  for  enactment.  Since  each  state  enacts  its  own  laws, 
Recent  the  employers  affected  by  the  proposed  legisla- 
legisiation.  tion  threaten  to  remove  their  plants  to 
other  states.  New  York  and  Illinois  have  excellent  child 
labor  laws,  while  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  in  1915 
passed  a  law  decidedly  improving  the  child  labor  situation 
in  that  state.  A  happy  augury  for  the  future  is  found  in 
the  recent  creation  of  a  Federal  Child  Labor  Bureau.  A 
model  child  labor  law  must  not  only  be  clear  and  dis- 
tinct in  language,  but  must  also  provide  an  effective 
machinery  for  the  enforcement  of  its  provisions.  A  sal- 
aried corps  of  inspectors  should  be  created  with  power  to 
prosecute  violations  of  the  law.  While  many  employers 
seek  to  cooperate  in  enforcing  the  law,  others  have  been 
guilty  of  evasion 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  a  model  child  labor  law  should 
cover  certain  well-defined  points.  The  maximum  working 
A  model  day  should  be  one  of  eight  hours,  instead  of  ten, 
law*  as  found  in  some  states.  Night  work  should  also 

be  prohibited,  and  a  closing  hour  fixed.  The  minimum  age 
at  which  the  child  is  permitted  to  work  should  be  fourteen. 
Some  states  still  have  a  limit  of  twelve  years  of  age,  and 
certain  southern  states  make  an  exception  even  to  this  age 
in  the  case  of  children  of  pauper  parents.  Children  between 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  should  have  duly  signed 
working  papers.  The  state  laws  on  child  labor  should  be 
correlated  with  those  upon  compulsory  education.  No 
children  should  be  permitted  to  enter  what  are  called  the 
"dangerous  trades,"  and  these  should  be  specified  in  the 
law. 

Women  in  Industry.— Women   as    well    as   children 


The  Conservation  of  Labor 


393 


394  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

became  workers  under  the  new  factory  system.  The 
economic  causes  of  both  problems  are  much  the  same  and 
their  effects  quite  similar,  although  women,  under 
bian*?  to  the  domestic  system,  always  performed  consider- 
ed labor.  able  industrial  labor  For  physical  reasons 

the  efficiency  of  woman  is  sometimes  not  so  high  as  that  of 
man;  while  her  health  and  vitality  are  often  seriously 
impaired  through  the  strain  of  industry.  From  the  stand- 
point of  society  the  effect  upon  family  life  may  be  equally 
bad,  especially  in  the  case  of  mothers  forced  to  leave  small 
children.  The  secondary  function  of  the  family  is  that  of 
socialization,  or  the  preparation  of  children  for  the  larger 
life  of  society.  This  cannot  be  accomplished  in  a  dis- 
rupted family  life.  However,  woman  cannot  be  denied 
her  right  to  independence  and  self-support,  for  this  move- 
ment is  but  a  part  of  the  larger  field  of  equality  into  which 
she  has  entered.  Nevertheless,  it  is  necessary  to  protect 
her  in  the  exercise  of  this  new  freedom.  Therefore  laws 
have  been  passed  to  regulate  the  industries  into  which  she 
may  enter,  so  that  her  surroundings  may  be  healthful  and 
sanitary.  There  exists,  however,  as  great  a  discrepancy 
in  the  various  laws  of  the  different  states  upon  these  mat- 
ters as  upon  child  labor.  The  number  of  women  employed 
is  very  high  in  the  manufacturing  states  of  our  North 
Atlantic  section  and  also  in  parts  of  the  South.  At  the 
present  time,  there  is  a  total  of  approximately  eight  million 
women  engaged  in  various  industries  in  the  United  States. 
Not  only  has  the  total  number  of  women  in  industry 
increased,  but  also  the  proportion  to  the  total  population 
has  advanced. 

Because  many  of  those  concerned  are  women,  a  word 
may  be  said  here  concerning  the  sweat  shop  system.     This 


The  Conservation  of  Labor 


395 


phenomenon  is  found  principally  in  large  congested  cities, 
and  especially  in  the  clothing  industry  located  in  these 
centers.     The  cloth,  after  being  cut  for  gar-   The  sweat 
ments   in    the   principal  establishments,  is  dis-    shop* 
tributed  to  various  small  shops  and  private  houses  in  the 
neighborhood.     Here  men,  women,  and  children  make  the 
finished  garment.     Employment  is  irregular,  and  wages  are 


A  TYPICAL  SWEAT  SHOP 

determined  by  the  "  sweater, "  who  takes  advantage  of  the 
immigrant,  the  aged,  the  children,  the  inexperienced,  and 
those  in  dire  need.  Hours  of  labor  are  long  in  the  busy 
season,  and  the  surroundings  where  the  work  is  done  are 
often  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  worker.  Factory 
laws  are  vain  against  these  abuses,  because  the  sweat  shop 
may  often  be  located  in  the  home  of  the  individual. 


396  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

In  most  occupations  the  wages  of  women  are  much 
lower  than  those  of  men.  Therefore  many  women  have 
raised  the  cry  of  "equal  pay  for  equal  work.'* 
However,  since  most  women  have  only  them- 
selves to  support  or  simply  the  family  income  to  sup- 
plement, they  have  been  able  to  subsist  on  lower  wages. 
Again,  competition  with  women  has  resulted  in  a  lowering 
of  the  wages  of  men.  To  supplement  the  income  other 
members  of  the  family  have  sought  gainful  occupations. 
Hence  many  argue  that  this  whole  movement  is  that  of 
a  circle,  with  nothing  gained  in  the  end.  They,  therefore, 
look  with  disfavor  upon  the  entrance  of  women  into  busi- 
ness and  industrial  life.  Certain  special  investigations  have 
shown  that,  in  some  industries,  the  wages  of  women  are 
criminally  low.  The  wage  allowed  precludes  any  possi- 
bility of  maintaining  a  decent  standard  of  living  for  those 
women  who  must  support  themselves.  The  result  is  bad 
housing,  insufficient  food  and  clothing,  and  little,  if  any, 
means  of  recreation.  Hence,  several  states  have  passed 
minimum  wage  laws  which  fix  the  lowest  wage  that  may 
be  paid  woman  workers  in  certain  employments.  Massa- 
chusetts led  this  movement  in  1912.  It  would  seem  that 
the  state  can  best  protect  women  from  exploitation  by 
refusing  to  permit  them  to  work  for  a  wage  insufficient  to 
maintain  a  decent  standard  of  living.  Women's  labor 
organizations  can,  of  course,  accomplish  the  same  purpose. 
The  occupations  of  women  may  be  grouped  under  the 
following  heads:  (i)  domestic  service;  (2)  agriculture; 
New  occu-  (3)  industry;  (4)  commerce  and  business;  (5) 
professional  life.  Domestic  service  employs  a 
large  number  of  women,  but  has  been  exempted  from  many 
laws  dealing  with  women  in  industry.  Although  American 


The  Conservation  of  Labor  397 

women  have  not  engaged  in  agriculture  to  any  great 
extent,  immigrants  from  Europe  sometimes  pick  fruit  and 
berries.  In  the  South  a  large  part  of  the  cotton  crop  is 
picked  by  colored  women.  The  great  change,  however, 
has  come  in  the  last  three  groups  of  occupations.  We 
have  seen  the  entrance  of  women  into  industry  and  have 
noted  its  causes  and  effects.  Of  more  recent  years  women 
have  invaded  commerce,  business,  and  the  professions. 
Formerly  the  only  profession  open  to  women  was  that  of 
teaching.  The  great  universities,  however,  have  now 
begun  to  open  wide  their  doors  to  women  who  desire  to 
study  law  or  medicine  or  the  new  profession  of  social  ser- 
vice. Formerly,  women  were  rarely  seen  in  the  mercan- 
tile pursuits,  but  now  they  are  often  found  taking  the  places 
of  men  as  clerks,  stenographers,  and  saleswomen.  Since 
the  age  of  marriage  has  advanced,  women  have  utilized 
such  positions  in  order  to  provide  for  themselves  a  means 
of  support.  Many  women  desire  the  economic  inde- 
pendence secured  through  a  professional  or  business  career. 
In  most  cases,  however,  women  are  simply  " loaned"  to 
industry  and  eventually  find  a  rightful  place  in  the  home. 
Welfare  Work. — To-day  it  is  a  far  cry  from  the  welfare 
work  of  a  modern  business  house  to  the  factory  conditions 
of  a  century  ago.  During  the  past  generation, 
the  conception  of  the  functions  of  the  employer 
has  widened  far  beyond  the  mere  matter  of  economic 
production.  He  is  regarded  as  having  social  responsi- 
bilities to  the  employee,  as  well  as  to  the  general  public. 
The  employment  of  large  numbers  of  women  and  children 
has  stimulated  welfare  work  within  the  factory  and  depart- 
ment store.  It  can  be  well  defined  in  the  words  of  Pro- 
fessor Commons  as  "all  those  services  which  an  employer 


398  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

may  render  to  his  work  people  over  and  above  the  pay- 
ment of  wages. "  Labor,  however,  has  not  always  taken 
a  sympathetic  attitude  toward  such  a  program  which  it 
has  stigmatized  as  capitalistic  feudalism.  It  is  even 
sometimes  said  that  welfare  work  is  done  for  advertising 
purposes,  and  as  a  substitute  for  higher  wages.  Never- 
theless, this  movement  often  represents  a  real  attempt  to 
put  a  soul  into  a  great  corporation,  and  to  develop  loyalty 
and  esprit  de  corps  among  the  workers. 

A  typical  example  of  welfare  work  may  be  seen  in  the 
construction  of  the  modern  factory,  which  affords  a  striking 
iiiustra-  contrast  to  the  dreary,  poorly  lighted  and  ven- 
tilated fire  traps  of  a  century  ago.  Toilet 
facilities  and  rest  rooms  have  also  been  provided.  Depart- 
ment stores,  which  later  began  this  work,  are  going  through 
a  similar  evolution.  Again,  large  modern  corporations 
often  have  free  medical  dispensaries  and  sometimes  social 
service  departments.  The  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion spends  nearly  six  million  dollars  annually  on  welfare 
work.  Railroads  have  felt  the  new  spirit  and  have  come 
to  see  that  contented  and  happy  employees  mate  for 
efficiency.  Sleeping  quarters,  as  well  as  smoking  and 
amusement  rooms,  have  been  located  near  great  terminals. 
Some  industrial  firms  have  established  athletic  fields  where 
baseball  games  are  played  between  the  different  depart- 
ments. Glee  clubs,  military  organizations,  reading  clubs, 
and  occasionally  schools  have  been  established  within  the 
organization  of  the  plant. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

i.  Sketch  some  of  the  early  social  effects  of  the  factory  s  ystem  in 
England. 


The  Conservation  of  Labor  399 

2.  What  steps  were  taken  by  Parliament  to  remedy  these  con- 
ditions? 

3.  Sketch  the  history  of  child  labor  in  the  United  States. 

4.  What  states  and  industries  are  conspicuous  in  this  regard? 

5.  Why  is  it  more  difficult  to  legislate  against  this  evil  in  the 
United  States  than  in  England? 

6.  Give  some  causes  of  child  labor  and  suggest  remedies. 

7.  State  fully  the  effects  of  child  labor. 

8.  What  points  should  a  model  child  labor  law  cover? 

9.  Compare  the  child  labor  problem  with  that  of  women  in 
industry. 

10.  Discuss  the  sweat  shop  and  its  evils. 

11.  What  are  some  causes  and  results  of  the  inadequate  wages  of 
women  in  certain  occupations? 

12.  How  have  some  states  tried  to  regulate  this  problem?    Do 
you  think  such  attempts  are  wise  and  successful? 

13.  Show  how  women's  sphere  of  activity  has  increased. 

14.  Classify  the  chief  occupations  of  women  to-day. 

15.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  welfare  work  of  a  modern 
industrial  corporation? 

16.  Give  some  illustrations. 

17.  What  has  been  the  attitude  of  labor  toward  welfare  work? 
Is  such  a  position  wise  or  fair? 


TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  child  labor  laws  of  your  own  state. 

2.  The  work  of  the  Consumers'  League. 

3.  Minimum  wage  laws. 

4.  Working  conditions  in  some  factory  or  department  store  near 
you. 

5.  Child  labor  in  England  before  the  law  of  1833. 

6.  Twentieth  century  social  legislation  in  England. 

7.  The  welfare  work  of  some  modern  corporation. 

8.  Contemporary  social  legislation  in  the  United  States. 

9.  Resolved  that  "women  should  not  work  in  the  industries." 
10.  Effect  of  the  Progressive  Campaign  of  191 2  on  social  legislation. 


400  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

REFERENCES 

ABBOTT,  E.    Women  in  Industry. 

CHEYNEY,  E.  P.    Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England. 

CLOPPER,  E.  N.     Child  Labor  in  the  City  Streets. 

HAMILTON,  W.    Current  Economic  Problems. 

KELLEY,  F.    Some  Ethical  Gains   Through  Legislation.     Chapters 

I,  II  and  III. 

MANGOLD,  G.  B.    Child  Labor  Problems. 
Reports  of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee. 
Reports  of  the  Consumers'  League. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
INDUSTRIAL  RISKS  AND  SOCIAL  INSURANCE 

I.  Unemployment 

1.  Causes: 

a.  Special 

b.  General 

2.  Amount 

3.  Social  cost 

4.  Remedial  measures 
II.  Occupations  of  risk 

1.  Causes  of  danger: 

a.  Poison 

b.  Dust 

c.  Extremes  of  temperature 

2.  Industrial  accidents: 

a.  Extent  and  character 

b.  Railroad  accidents 

c.  Other  accidents 

3.  Proposed  remedies : 

a.  Workmen's  compensation 

b.  Compulsory  state  insurance 
II.  Sickness  insurance 

1.  National  cost  of  ill  health 

2.  Forms  of  insurance 
III.  Old  age  insurance 

1.  In  Germany 

2.  In  Great  Britain 

3.  Conclusion 

Although  of  a  different  character,  the  risks  of  industry 
are  shared  by  both  labor  and  capital.     The  enterpriser, 
AA  401 


402  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

who  assumes  the  responsibility  for  an  undertaking,  faces 
the  possibility  of  financial  loss.  But,  while  periods  of 
depression  mean  lower  dividends  to  the  capitalist,  they 
bring  tc  the  laborer  the  loss  of  employment  and  wages. 
Industrial  accidents  and  sickness,  as  well  as  the  possi- 
bility of  a  dependent  old  age,  are  among  the  hazards  of 
industry.  Like  child  labor  and  the  sweat  shop,  these 
economic  maladjustments  have  serious  social  effects.  The 
problem  of  remedial  legislation  largely  falls  within  the 
sphere  of  the  individual  states.  Social  insurance  is  an 
attempt  to  diffuse  the  risks  of  industry  throughout  society 
and  to  prevent  the  entire  burden  from  falling  upon  a  single 
individual  or  family.  The  most  common  types  of  social 
insurance  are  against  accidents,  ill  health,  and  old  age. 

Unemployment. — Numerous  individual  reasons  may  be 
assigned  for  unemployment,  such  as  old  age,  sickness, 
Causes:  intemperance,  shiftlessness,  or  incapacity.  Such 
special.  personal  defects,  however,  do  not  create  the 
problem  of  unemployment,  but  merely  determine  its  inci- 
dence, that  is,  which  members  of  society  shall  be  the  unem- 
ployed. The  great  causes  of  unemployment  are  to  be 
found  in  the  economic  environment.  Division  of  labor  is 
a  complex  mechanism,  and  modern  industries  are  vitally 
interdependent.  A  strike  of  the  London  dock  hands  may 
cause  loss  of  employment  to  the  millers  of  Minneapolis. 
Again,  there  may  be  a  temporary  oversupply  of  some 
commodity.  Too  many  individuals  may  have  been  work- 
ing in  one  industry,  and  overproduction  may  have  resulted. 
Certain  towns  in  the  Middle  West,  for  example,  have  been 
characterized  as  steel  towns,  or  automobile  towns.  If  over- 
production strikes  one  such  industry,  a  serious  loss  of 
employment  takes  place. 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  403 

Unemployment,  however,  is  more  general  in  periods  of 
industrial  depression.  These  unfortunate  economic  crises 
seem  to  have  been  regularly  recurring  phe- 

.  ,  .  General. 

nomena.  It  has  been  estimated  that,  in  almost 
every  decade,  the  United  States  has  suffered  from  a  more 
or  less  severe  panic.  Rising  and  falling  price  levels  have 
an  important  effect  upon  these  business  cycles,  and  hence 
the  stabilization  of  prices  is  most  important.  Again, 
within  a  particular  industry,  there  may  be  alternating  busy 
and  slack  seasons.  In  the  building  trades  construction 
work  can  be  undertaken  only  in  fair  weather.  Another 
important  cause  of  unemployment  is  to  be  found  in  fre- 
quent changes  in  demand.  Fashion  is  very  fickle,  and  its 
dictates  are  uneconomic.  A  new  type  of  shoe  or  a  new 
style  of  cloth  may  mean  the  scrapping  of  old  machinery 
and  the  construction  of  new.  In  general,  we  may  say  that 
the  production  of  luxuries  is  characterized  by  a  less  stable 
demand  than  the  production  of  necessities.  Again,  the 
invention  of  new  machinery  causes  unemployment  to  some 
workers,  who  must  find  new  means  of  livelihood.  The 
constant  changing  of  the  tariff  has  had  much  the  same 
effect.  Thus,  changes  in  the  economic  environment  call 
for  constant  readjustment.  Unemployment  represents  one 
result  of  imperfect  coordination  and  adjustment. 

Unemployment  may  be  chronic  or  temporary.    Although 
it  is  greatly  increased  in  periods  of  general  depression,  there 
is  an  alarming  amount  of  permanent  unemploy- 
ment.    The   Charity   Organization   Society  of 
New  York  states  that  half  of  their  applicants  need  work 
rather  than  material  help.     During  the  winter  of  1914-1915 
the  unemployment  problem  became  so  acute  in  Phila- 
delphia that  a  commission  was  appointed  to  study  the 


404  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

situation.  The  report  showed  that,  in  a  city  of  a  million 
and  a  quarter  of  inhabitants,  the  number  of  unemployed 
in  various  occupations  ranged  from  fifty  to  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand.  The  amount  of  unemployment  in 
normal  times  was  found  to  be  alarming.  Lace  weavers, 
for  example,  were  found  to  have  worked  only  three-fifths 
of  their  time  in  a  period  of  five  years.  One  representative 
carpet  mill  had  never  failed  to  lose  twenty  per  cent  of  its 
time  in  any  year  during  the  previous  four  years.  It  was 
estimated  that  dock  hands  did  not  work  more  than  two 
days  each  week.  It  was  found  that  every  winter  thousands 
of  Italians  returned  to  Philadelphia  from  the  truck  farms 
of  South  Jersey  to  render  the  city's  unemployment  prob- 
lem more  acute.  Except  in  times  of  great  prosperity,  there 
is  probably  an  excess  of  the  supply  of  labor  of  the  lowest 
grade.  This  is  known  as  the  casual  labor  force,  or  the 
labor  reserve.  During  the  World  War  there  was  little 
unemployment,  for  production  was  increased  and  wages 
were  high.  Reconstruction  of  industry  in  the  post-war 
period,  however,  brought  a  serious  problem  of  unemploy- 
ment. Prices  began  to  fall  and  the  production  of  a  number 
of  commodities  was  curtailed. 

The  costs  of  unemployment  are  heavy  to  the  employee, 
to  the  employer,  and  to  society.     To  the  employee  it  means 

Social  cost  ^OSS  °*  wa£es  anc^  a  l°wer  standard  of  living.  It 
injures  the  worker's  morale  and  unfits  him  for 
the  discipline  of  steady  work.  It  also  breaks  up  the 
organization  of  the  employer.  Efficiency  is  lowered  by  a 
changing  staff  of  workers.  The  cost  of  " breaking  in"  a 
new  man  has  been  estimated  at  from  twenty-five  to  one 
hundred  dollars.  The  cost  to  society  of  unemployment 
may  be  read  in  an  increased  rate  of  poverty  and  crime. 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  405 

The  causes  of  unemployment  suggest  the  remedies. 
Philanthropy  is  a  mere  temporary  expedient.  To  effect 
a  permanent  remedy,  changes  must  be  made  in  Remedial 
the  economic  environment.  Scientific  manage-  measures- 
ment  has  done  much  in  this  regard.  Personnel  depart- 
ments have  been  established  within  an  industry  and 
employment  managers  trained.  Scientific  studies  of  the 
causes  of  the  great  labor  "  turnover,"  and  of  absenteeism  in 
industry,  have  been  attempted.  Improved  working  con- 
ditions, welfare  work,  and  such  democratic  innovations  as 
workers'  councils  have  been  found  helpful.  In  certain 
cases  it  is  also  possible  to  dovetail  seasonal  industries  so 
that  constant  employment  is  provided.  Slack  seasons  may 
be  used  for  taking  inventories  and  for  providing  necessary 
stock.  Education  of  the  public,  and  of  the  manufacturer, 
to  the  necessity  of  a  stable  demand  will  tend  to  reduce 
sudden  and  extreme  changes.  A  sound  monetary  and 
banking  system  is  necessary  to  stabilize  prices  and  to  ward 
off  the  cycle  of  business  depression.  Too  extreme  speciali- 
zation in  industry  may  well  be  avoided.  Industrial  edu- 
cation should  seek  not  only  to  teach  a  man  a  trade,  but 
also  to  make  him  an  adaptable  worker.  Wherever  pos- 
sible, the  government  should  reserve  its  building  and  con- 
struction work  for  periods  of  economic  depression.  Such 
a  plan  will  not  only  give  employment  when  it  is  most 
needed,  but  it  will  also  stimulate  related  industries  which 
furnish  necessary  supplies.  A  system  of  public  labor 
exchanges  has  been  established  in  some  states,  whereby 
helpful  information  is  secured  for  both  the  worker  and  the 
employer.  Thus  an  attempt  is  made  to  adjust  the  labor 
force  to  industrial  conditions,  and  to  direct  it  from  localities 
of  oversupply  to  where  it  is  needed.  Unfortunately,  in  the 


406  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

United  States,  most  of  the  labor  exchanges  are  privately 
managed.  What  is  imperatively  needed  is  a  national 
system  of  public  labor  exchanges  which  will  avoid  duplica- 
tion and  guarantee  correlation  of  labor  information. 

Occupations  of  Risk. — The  name  dangerous  trades  is 
applied  to  certain  occupations  because  their  very  nature  is 

Causes  of  *ata*  to  t^ie  h63^  and  sa^ety  °f  tne  worker, 
danger:  These  may  be  conveniently  considered  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  chief  sources  of  danger 
inherent  in  such  trades.  One  source  of  danger  lies  in  the 
poisonous  character  of  the  materials  used  in  certain 
branches  of  industry.  The  effect  of  such  work  upon  the 
individual  is  frequently  seen  in  the  disease  known  as  lead 
poisoning,  which  often  occurs  in  the  manufacture  of  white 
lead.  This  substance  enters  the  system  through  the  skin, 
or  by  way  of  the  alimentary  canal  when  the  worker  is  not 
careful  to  wash  his  hands  before  eating.  Paralysis,  insan- 
ity, and  finally  death  may  result.  Several  European 
countries  have  greatly  reduced  the  mortality  in  this  trade 
by  forbidding  such  practices  as  dry  rubbing,  and  by  insist- 
ing upon  the  necessity  of  certain  precautionary  measures. 
Workers  with  phosphorus  frequently  contract  a  char- 
acteristic disease,  singularly  fatal,  known  as  phosphorus 
jaw.  This  is  one  of  the  few  dangerous  trades  against  which 
our  government  has  legislated. 

A  second  source  of  danger  lies  in  those  industries  which 
expose  the  lungs  to  an  excessive  amount  of  dust.  Nature 
has  furnished  protection  for  occasional  exposure 
to  a  normal  amount  of  dust,  but  continual 
exposure  to  this  irritant  is  extremely  dangerous.  The 
lungs  become  spotted  with  foreign  particles  which  make 
fearful  ravages  upon  the  delicate  membrane.  Tuber- 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  407 

culosis  and  other  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  bronchial  tubes 
affect  the  respiratory  organs.  This  dust  danger  is  well 
illustrated  in  coal  mining.  By  screening  the  coal  wet,  the 
amount  of  coal  dust  in  the  air  may  be  reduced.  A  similar 
pernicious  effect  often  results  from  the  dust  generated  by 
stone  cutting,  by  metal  grinding,  and  from  the  lint  in  tex- 
tile mills.  Suction  tubes  and  blowers  should  be  used  to 
draw  off  this  vitiated  air  from  the  atmosphere.  Certain 
gases  and  fumes  may  also  be  both  dangerous  and  poisonous. 
In  such  cases  the  work  should  be  done  in  a  helmet,  or  under 
a  hood  with  a  forced  draft.  In  many  of  the  chemical  trades 
the  work  is  of  a  similar  dangerous  character. 

A  third  source  of  danger  lies  in  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  air  pressure.  When  steel  workers,  or  those 
employed  near  hot  furnaces,  feel  the  outside 
contact  of  the  cold  blast  of  winter,  they  become 
an  easy  prey  to  pneumonia.  Workers  under- 
ground in  mines,  tunnels,  and  subways  often  develop 
peculiar  diseases  due  to  changes  of  air  pressure.  Although 
higher  wages  are  sometimes  paid  to  such  workers  and 
to  those  in  similar  positions  because  of  their  dangerous 
character,  society  must  still  further  protect  them  from  the 
unusual  strains  of  industry.  The  law  must  prescribe  pre- 
cautionary measures  and  insist  upon  their  enforcement. 
Shorter  hours  with  frequent  periods  of  rest,  are  absolutely 
essential  to  the  health  and  safety  of  such  workers. 

The  industrial  accident,  impairing  if  not  altogether 
destroying  the  efficiency  of  the  worker,  is  another  product 
of  the  factory  system.  The  report  of  the  first  Cooperative 
Safety  Congress  showed  that  on  the  average,  in  certain 
occupations,  one  worker  was  killed  in  every  sixteen  minutes, 
and  one  injured  in  every  sixteen  seconds.  This  is  the  price 


408  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

in  human  life  that  America  has  paid  for  speed.     The  respon- 

sibility for  this  condition  rests  upon  both  the  employer  and 

the  worker.     The  worker  is  sometimes  careless, 

accidents1:     indifferent,  and  ignorant;  while  the  employer  is 


often  negligent  in  supplying  safety  devices  and 
in  rigidly  enforcing  the  law.  Of  recent  years 
a  campaign  of  popular  education  has  been  inaugurated 
with  the  slogan  "  Safety  First."  A  national  organization 
for  the  safety  of  the  worker  uses  the  "white  cross  "  to  stand 
for  prevention,  in  the  same  way  that  the  "red  cross  "  stands 
for  first  aid  to  the  injured.  Industrial  accidents  may  be 
commonly  classified  according  to  occupation,  as  railroad, 
mining,  factory,  and  building  accidents. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  carefully  com- 
piles the  statistics  relating  to  railroad  accidents.  It  would 
Railroad  seem  that,  in  an  average  year,  one  employee  is 
killed  for  every  four  hundred  employed  by  the 
railroad.  This,  of  course,  does  not  include  thousands  of 
passengers  who  have  been  killed  or  injured  in  wrecks.  A 
comparison  with  certain  European  COUL  tries,  like  England 
and  Germany,  shows  that  there  is  no  justification  for  such 
an  appalling  loss  of  life.  Remedial  measures  should  apply 
to  company  and  workman  alike.  The  corporation  should 
not  only  install  the  latest  and  most  approved  signal  devices, 
but  should  also  use  steel  coaches  wherever  possible.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  financial  condition  of  some  railroads  has  pre- 
vented an  expenditure  of  funds  for  such  purposes.  A  fed- 
eral law  requiring  automatic  couplers  has  reduced  markedly 
the  number  of  casualties  among  trainmen.  The  employee, 
however,  cannot  be  relieved  of  his  individual  responsibility. 
He  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert  for  his  own  safety  and 
for  that  of  others.  From  the  railroad  point  of  view,  as 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  409 

well  as  from  that  of  the  public,  it  is  an  absolute  waste  to 
employ  ignorant,  careless,  or  unsteady  workmen.  On  the 
other  hand,  hours  of  work  should  not  be  so  continuous  as 
to  produce  fatigue  and  lowered  efficiency. 

Statistics  regarding  mining  accidents  are  compiled  by 
state  inspectors  and  are  neither  so  complete  nor  accurate 
as  those  regarding  railroads.  Of  mining  acci-  other 
dents,  those  in  coal  mines  are  the  most  numer-  accUents' 
ous.  In  the  coal-producing  countries  of  Europe  the  out- 
put has  increased  greatly,  but  the  number  of  deaths  per 
thousand  has  decreased.  This  is  due  to  legislation  con- 
cerning the  operation  of  mines  and  to  the  establishment  of 
testing  stations  for  the  study  of  problems  relating  to  safety 
in  mines.  Much  has  been  accomplished  by  government 
regulations  concerning  the  use  of  safety  lamps,  explosives, 
and  the  proper  support  of  small  passageways.  In  regard  to 
manufacturing,  we  find  the  same  incompleteness  of  statis- 
tics because  of  the  system  of  state  inspection  of  factories. 
The  chief  source  of  danger  here  lies  in  the  frequent  use  of 
unguarded  machinery.  Safety  appliances  are  often  dis- 
carded in  the  "  speeding  up  "  process.  Inefficient  labor  and 
long-continued  work  upon  the  same  monotonous  operation 
frequently  results  in  careless  accidents.  The  effects  of 
industrial  accidents  and  dangerous  trades  are  more  than 
an  impairment  of  personal  efficiency  or  an  individual  sacri- 
fice of  life  and  limb.  They  also  represent  an  enormous  loss 
of  productive  power.  Again,  the  burden  of  such  injuries 
falls  not  only  upon  the  worker  himself,  but  also  upon  his 
family  and  the  community.  Loss  of  the  services  of  the 
bread  winner  may  make  the  family  destitute  of  proper 
support  and  thus  dependent  upon  society. 

In  view  of  these  marked  effects  of  dangerous  trades  and 


410  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

industrial  accidents  upon  society,  it  is  important  that  the 
individual  affected  be  provided  with  legal  machinery,  where- 
by he  may  be  reimbursed  for  injuries  suffered  at 
£me°dsies:  the  hands  of  his  fellowmen.  That  is,  society  must 
Workmen's  ofjer  some  means  of  protection  to  the  workman, 

Compensation.  ....  /» 

or  to  his  family,  for  social  injuries.  The  first 
step  toward  social  insurance  was  found  in  the  Employers' 
Liability  Act,  under  which  the  injured  workmen  might  bring 
suit  against  the  employer  to  recover  damages  for  wrong  suf- 
fered. However,  because  of  the  doctrine  of  contributory 
negligence,  it  was  often  impossible  for  the  workman  to 
receive  any  recompense  for  his  injury,  if  it  could  be  proved 
that  such  injury  was  partly  caused  by  his  own  carelessness 
or  by  that  of  his  fellow  workers.  It,  therefore,  marked  a 
great  step  in  advance  for  the  workman  when  society  evolved 
the  idea  of  a  Workmen's  Compensation  Act,  whereby  the 
expense  of  law  suits  is  generally  eliminated.  According  to 
this  act,  the  workman,  for  his  injury,  receives  automatically 
a  percentage  of  his  wages  or  a  certain  sum  in  proportion 
to  the  injury  sustained.  Even  though  the  fault  may  be 
largely  that  of  the  workman,  the  employer  must  bear  the 
brunt  of  the  financial  burden  and  in  this  way  accept  finan- 
cially the  risk  which  the  laborer  assumes  physically.  Hence 
the  employer  is  more  apt  to  consider  the  safety  of  his 
employees.  In  1897,  to  supersede  the  older  Employers' 
Liability  Act,  England  passed  a  Workmen's  Compensation 
Act.  In  the  United  States,  this  legislation  is  largely  a 
matter  of  state  action,  and  several  commonwealths,  includ- 
ing Pennsylvania,  have  enacted  such  laws.  Finally,  Con- 
gress in  1908,  enacted  a  law  providing  a  system  of  com- 
pensation for  accidents  suffered  by  industrial  employees  of 
the  federal  government. 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  411 

Another  form  of  social  insurance  is  known  as  compul- 
sory state  insurance.  Germany  was  the  pioneer  in  this 
movement.  In  1884  a  law  was  enacted  requiring  , 

»    Compulsory 

employees  to  become  members  of  mutual  acci-  state 

__.  .  ,        insurance. 

dent  insurance  companies.  These  are  privately 
managed,  but  are  supervised  by  the  Central  Insurance 
Office.  The  insurance  associations  levy  assessments  upon 
the  member  companies  to  provide  funds  from  which  to  pay 
compensation.  The  injured  workman,  or  his  dependents, 
receive  payment  in  accordance  with  a  legally  prescribed 
scale  of  rates.  The  accident  insurance  is  correlated  with 
a  plan  of  compulsory  sickness  insurance.  For  the  first 
thirteen  weeks,  the  payment  to  the  worker  comes  from  the 
latter  fund.  Hence  the  burden  upon  the  employer  is  not 
so  heavy.  Like  other  forms  of  social  insurance,  the  tend- 
ency is  to  shift  the  cost  upon  the  general  public.  Since 
industrial  insurance  premiums  are  part  of  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  price  of  the  product  is  correspondingly  higher. 
The  products  of  dangerous  trades  become  expensive,  and 
their  use  is  thus  discouraged.  Industrial  insurance  takes 
another  form  in  Norway,  where  employers  are  required  to 
pay  premiums  into  a  state  insurance  fund  from  which 
injured  workers  receive  compensation.  The  rate  of  premium 
which  each  employer  pays  depends  upon  the  number  and 
wages  of  his  employees,  and  upon  the  hazard  of  the  occu- 
pation. 

Sickness  Insurance. — The  examinations  for  military 
service  during  the  World  War  afforded  an  interesting  study 
of  the  physical  fitness  of  the  nation.    According   National 
to  a  report  of  the  Provost  Marshal    General,    cost  of  m 

health. 

over  three  million  men  were  examined  in  the 

period  from  December,  1917,  to  September,  1918.    Approx- 


412  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

imately  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  men  between  the  ages  of 
twenty-one  and  thirty-one  were  found  fully  qualified  for 
military  service.  A  greater  number  of  rejections  were  made 
from  the  urban  population  than  from  the  rural.  Again,  a 
slightly  greater  percentage  of  rejections  occurred  with  the 
negro  than  with  the  white  applicants,  and  with  the  foreign 
born  as  compared  with  the  native.  The  amount  of  national 
sickness  is  equally  important,  although  there  are  no  such 
significant  statistics.  A  committee  of  experts,  however, 
estimated  that  there  are  annually  tv/o  hundred  and  fifty 
million  days  of  sickness  among  the  workmen  of  the  United 
States.  Expressed  in  terms  of  money,  this  means  an  annual 
cost  of  perhaps  a  billion  dollars.  The  United  States  Bureau 
of  Labor  reports  that  every  workman  in  the  steel  industry 
has  an  expectation  of  nine  days  lost  by  sickness  each  year, 
as  against  four  days  lost  by  accident. 

Many  industrial  firms  have  inaugurated  plans  by  which 
their  employees  receive  partial  wages  'during  sickness. 
Forms  of  There  are  also  unions  and  fraternal  organizations 
insurance.  Wj1|c]1  pav  $[&  benefits.  Germany,  however, 
was  the  first  nation  to  make  sickness  insurance  compulsory. 
In  1883  a  law  was  passed  for  this  purpose,  which  applied  to 
all  wage  earners  receiving  less  than  two  thousand  marks  a 
year,  totaling  almost  twenty  million  persons.  The  employer 
pays  one-third,  and  the  employee  two-thirds,  of  the  cost. 
Insurance  cards  are  carried  by  the  worker,  and  both 
employer  and  employee  purchase  sickness  insurance  stamps 
at  the  post  office.  Thus  the  government  receives  money 
premiums  from  which  the  insurance  office  pays  sick  benefits. 
In  1912,  Great  Britain  passed  the  National  Insurance  Act. 
Sickness  insurance  became  compulsory  for  all  wage  earners 
receiving  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  annually, 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  413 

about  fourteen  million  workers.  A  similar  system  of  stamps 
and  cards  was  inaugurated,  but  the  employer's  contri- 
bution was  relatively  larger.  The  whole  insurance  system 
of  Germany  was  codified  in  1911.  Among  the  benefits 
provided  for  were  not  only  money  compensation,  but  also 
provision  for  medical  attendance  and  necessary  appliances, 
such  as  spectacles  and  artificial  limbs.  Free  admission  to 
the  hospital  was  provided,  when  necessary,  as  well  as  pro- 
vision for  maternity  cases. 

Old  Age  Insurance. —  Germany  was  also  the  first 
nation  to  administer  compulsory  old-age  insurance.  Because 
of  the  paternalistic  nature  of  the  government,  jn 
such  schemes  have  originated  and  flourished  in  Germany' 
that  country.  This  particular  scheme  compels  the  employer 
to  see  that  each  employee  has  an  old-age  insurance  card 
with  the  proper  amount  of  stamps  affixed.  These  stamps 
represent  small  premiums  of  from  three  to  nine  cents  a 
week,  varying  with  the  wages  paid.  The  employer  affixes 
the  stamps  which  he  has  purchased  from  the  government, 
paying  half  himself  and  deducting  the  other  half  from  the 
employee's  wages.  The  annuities  granted  are  correspond- 
ingly small,  and  averaged  before  the  War  about  forty 
dollars.  The  government  itself  added  twelve  dollars 
and  fifty  cents  out  of  the  imperial  treasury  for  each  pen- 
sioner. 

In  1908  Great  Britain  passed  the  Old  Age  Pension  Law. 
This  is  a  gratuitous  payment  by  the  government  as  com- 
pared with  the  compulsory  old-age  insurance    in  Great 
plan  of  Germany,  in  which  employer,  employee,    Bntam- 
and  government  all  contribute.    At  the  age  of  seventy,  a 
pension  will  be  paid  to  any  individual  whose  income  does 
not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  year,  provided 


414  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

he  has  been  a  British  citizen  for  twenty  years  and  has 
never  been  either  a  pauper  or  a  criminal.  The  maximum 
pension  is  five  shillings  a  week. 

Thus,  social  insurance  covers  the  different  hazards  of 
industry,  and  each  type  must  be  considered  on  rts  own 
merits.  Industrial  accident  insurance,  however, 
has  passed  the  experimental  stage  and  should  be 
included  within  the  legislative  program  of  every  enlightened 
State.  On  the  other  hand,  most  students  of  social  insur- 
ance feel  that  the  difficulties  of  unemployment  insurance 
are  insurmountable,  and  that  such  schemes  should  be  left 
to  private  associations  like  labor  unions.  No  nation  has  as 
yet  provided  unemployment  insurance.  Sickness  and  old- 
age  insurance  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  It  is 
here  that  the  advocates  of  social  insurance  are  planning 
their  campaign  in  the  United  States.  Sickness  insurance 
is  feared  by  some  because  it  represents  another  extension 
of  governmental  activities.  It  is  also  contended  that  it 
would  offer  many  administrative  difficulties.  Old-age  insur- 
ance is  denounced  by  many  writers  as  socialism  in  disguise. 
It  might  discourage  thrift  in  the  young,  and  it  would 
undoubtedly  increase  both  the  expense  and  the  functions  of 
the  national  or  state  government. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Enumerate  some  of  the  risks  of  labor  and  contrast  them  with 
the  risks  of  capital. 

2.  Explain  what  you  understand  by  social  insurance  and  name 
the  leading  types. 

3.  What  elements  in  the  economic  environment  make  for  unem- 
ployment? 

4.  How  can  these  be  changed  to  minimize  unemployment? 

5.  Discuss  the  amount  of  unemployment,  chronic  and  temporary. 


Industrial  Risks  and  Social  Insurance  415 

6.  Show  the  social  cost  of  unemployment. 

7.  Show  why  several  dangerous  trades  are  so  called. 

8.  Can  you  name  any  others  besides  those  in  the  text? 

9.  Show  that  the  rate  of  industrial  accidents  is  alarming. 

10.  What  occupations  lead  in  this  respect  and  how  may  conditions 
in  each  be  improved? 

11.  Show  the  social  effects  of  industrial  accidents. 

12.  Compare  American  and  European  conditions  in  respect  to 
accidents. 

13.  Compare  the  Employers'  Liability  Act  with  the  Workmen's 
Compensation  Act. 

14.  Contrast  the  latter  with  Germany's  plan. 

15.  Show  the  industrial  cost  of  sickness. 

1 6.  Do  you  think  sickness  insurance  should  be  introduced,  or 
should  be  made  compulsory,  in  the  United  States? 

17.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  German  system. 

18.  Compare  the  English  and  German  plans  of  old-age  insurance. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  How   the   scientific   management   of   industry   may   reduce 
unemployment. 

2.  Cycles  of  business  depression. 

3.  A  comparison  of  the  casualties  of  war  and  industry. 

4.  The  Red  Cross  and  Safety  First  movements. 

5.  Social  insurance  in  Germany. 

6.  The  social  insurance  program  of  your  own  state. 

7.  The  social  insurance  program   for  American   soldiers   and 
sailors  during  the  World  War. 

8.  The  abuse  of  the  doctrine  of  contributory  negligence. 

9.  A  contrast  between  socialism  and  social  insurance. 

10.  Effects  of  laissezfaire  or  individualism  on  industry  in  England 
and  America. 

11.  Objections  to  a  program  of  social  insurance. 

REFERENCES 

BEVERIDGE,  W.  H.     Unemployment. 

BURCH,  H.  R.     American  Economic  Life.     Chapter  XVI. 


4 1 6  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

CARLTON,  F.  T.    History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor. 

HAMILTON,  W.    Current  Economic  Problems.     Chapter  XI. 

LESCOHIER,  D.  D.    The  Labor  Market. 

OLIVER,  T.    Dangerous  Trades. 

OLIVER,  T.    Diseases  of  Occupation. 

SEAGER,  H.  R.    Principles  of  Economics.    Chapter  XXXIL 

SEAGER,  H.  R.    Social  Insurance. 

WILLITS,  J.  H.     Unemployment  in  Philadelphia 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

STANDARDS  OF  LIVING 

I.  General  characteristics 

1.  Meaning  of  standard  of  living 

2.  Its  relative  nature 

3.  Nature  of  economic  wants: 

a.  They  vary 

b.  They  expand 

4.  Real  wages 
II.  Family  budgets 

1.  Component  parts : 

a.  Chief  items 

b.  Minor  items 

2.  Variations: 

a.  Among  groups 

b.  Among  localities 
III.  Minimum  standards 

1 .  Older  investigations 

2.  Effect  of  World  War: 

a.  On  wages 

b.  On  cost  of  living 

3.  The  conclusion 

After  all,  the  fundamental  requisite  of  a  contented 
democracy  is  not  a  highly  complicated  system  of  govern- 
mental machinery  for  the  purpose  of  alleviating  economic 
and  social  distress,  but  a  sufficient  participation  in  eco- 
nomic prosperity  which  relieves  the  necessity  of  continued 
governmental  assistance  in  industrial  life.  However,  great 
national  prosperity  does  not  necessarily  mean  prosperity 
upon  the  part  of  all  the  citizens  of  the  republic.  We  have 
BB  4I7 


4 1 8  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

observed  that  national  wealth  and  national  welfare  are  not 
necessarily  identical.  If  a  considerable  number  of  people 
have  insufficient  incomes  to  maintain  decent  standards 
of  living,  the  nation  exhibits  the  social  maladjustment  of 
poverty.  Before  investigating  the  problem  of  poverty, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  what  is  meant  by  a 
standard  of  living. 

General  Characteristics. — A  standard  of  living  may 

be  regarded  as  a  measure  of  economic  consumption,  that 

.   is,  as  the  amount  of  wealth  which  an  individual 

Meaning  of 

standard       or  a  family  consumes.     Economic  goods  may  be 

of  living.  .   . 

roughly  divided  into  three  groups — necessities, 
comforts,  and  luxuries.  Exact  social  measurements  are. 
impossible,  and  standards  of  living  gradually  fade  into 
each  other  like  the  colors  of  the  spectrum.  The  standard 
of  living  of  an  unskilled  laborer  may  include  little  more 
than  the  necessities  of  life,  while  that  of  his  employer  may 
be  largely  made  up  of  luxuries.  There  is  one  standard  of 
living  for  Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  Cabbage  Patch  and  another 
for  her  friend,  the  Christmas  Lady.  Between  the  two 
extremes  are  innumerable  variations  involving  all  degrees 
of  comforts.  Standards  of  living  are  generally  estimated 
in  terms  of  money,  and  experts  speak  of  the  different 
income  groups  in  society.  The  estimate  is  generally  based 
upon  the  family  rather  than  upon  the  individual  expendi- 
ture, for  the  family  is  the  usual  unit  of  economic  con- 
sumption. 

Not  only  do  standards  of  living  vary  between  different 

income  groups,  but  also  between  nations.    Thus,  we  hear 

its  relative    °f  an  American  standard  of  living  as  compared 

with  a  European  or  a  Chinese  standard  of  living. 

Finally,  standards  of  living  vary  from  age  to  age,  and  the 


Standards  of  Living  419 

comforts  of  a  middle  class  family  in  England  to-day  are 
very  different  from  those  of  the  Elizabethan  period.  In 
short,  a  standard  of  living  is  a  relative  and  comparative 
thing.  People  do  not  miss  what  they  have  never  enjoyed. 
The  philosopher  may  object  to  such  a  commodity  measure- 
ment of  welfare  and  claim  that  happiness  is  a  state  of  mind. 
A  poor  man  may  be  happier  than  a  rich  man.  The  student 
of  society  does  not  deny  the  truth  of  such  a  possibility, 
but  finds  it  impossible  to  measure  accurately  happiness 
which  rests  upon  an  intangible  state  of  mind.  Conse- 
quently, he  is  forced  to  content  himself  with  measuring 
standards  of  living  in  terms  of  the  wealth  consumed. 

An  exact  measurement  of  standards  of  living  is  also 
rendered  difficult  by  the  diversity  of  human  wants.  One 
workman  may  regard  tobacco  as  a  necessity 

.,    ,  .  .  ,.    -       ,     .  ,          Nature  of 

and  curtail  his  consumption  of  food  in  order    economic 


to  gratify  this  want.  The  expenditures  of 
one  individual  may  seem  very  irrational  to 
another.  One  successful  business  man  may  desire  to  build 
public  libraries  and  another  to  construct  racing  yachts.  If 
the  consumption  of  a  single  economic  good  continues,  the 
principle  of  diminishing  satisfaction  begins  to  operate.  The 
second  automobile  has  less  want-satisfying  power  to  an  indi- 
vidual than  the  first.  The  small  boy  eating  hot  cakes  for 
breakfast  may  have  an  enormous  gustatory  capacity,  but 
the  point  of  diminishing  satisfaction,  or  utility,  is  finally 
reached.  This  principle  of  diminishing  utility  is  lessened 
by  the  great  variety  of  economic  goods,  which  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution  has  made  possible. 

Another  characteristic  of  human  wants  is  their  power  of 
rapid  expansion.  As  one's  income  increases,  one's  eco- 
nomic wants  increase  even  more  rapidly.  Standards  of 


420  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

living,  like  India-rubber,  seem  capable  of  almost  infinite 
expansion.  Occasionally  the  snapping  point  is  reached, 
and  disaster  overcomes  the  nation.  Imitation  is 
a  powerful  force  in  society,  and  each  group  looks 
longingly  at  the  standard  of  living  of  the  next  higher 
income  group.  Sometimes  the  standard  which  is  set  by 
the  so-called  " social  set"  is  as  harmful  as  it  is  shallow. 
Its  purpose  may  be  a  mere  display  of  wealth,  with  the  con- 
sequent inference  of  superiority.  The  logical  outcome  of 
such  " conspicuous  consumption"  is  a  tendency  to  convert 
a  democracy  into  a  plutocracy.  Such  was  the  social  and 
political  evolution  of  ancient  Rome. 

"HI  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 
Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay." 

Standards  of  living  are  influenced  not  only  by  what  one 
wants,  but  also  by  what  one  can  purchase.  Human  wants 
Real  are  upon  one  side  of  the  equation,  and  income 

or  wages  upon  the  other.  Economists  differen- 
tiate between  real  wages  and  money  wages.  A  miser,  like 
Silas  Marner,  may  have  found  pleasure  in  the  mere  count- 
ing of  his  gold,  but  what  a  normal  individual  desires  is  the 
goods  which  he  can  buy,  either  in  the  present  or  future. 
Real  wages  mean  the  economic  goods,  or  services,  which 
can  be  purchased  with  the  money  wages.  In  order  to  express 
money  wages  in  terms  of  real  wages,  the  general  price  level 
in  the  community  must  be  considered.  If  a  man  receives 
two  thousand  dollars  to-day,  instead  of  the  one  thousand 
dollars  received  several  years  ago,  his  money  wage  has 
been  doubled.  If  the  general  price  level  during  this 
period  has  similarly  increased,  however,  the  purchasing 
power  of  money  has  been  cut  in  half.  Hence  his  real  wages 


Standards  of  Living  421 

•  remain  the  same.     But,  if  prices  decline  and  money  wages 
remain  the  same,  real  wages  are  increasing. 

Family  Budgets. — Just  as  a  nation  or  city  must  bal- 
ance its  expenditures  against  its  receipts  from  taxation, 
so  the  average  family  must  balance  purchases  Com  onent 
against  wages.  Any  attempt  to  do  this  sys-  Parts: 
tematically  may  be  called  making  a  budget. 
Formerly  the  study  of  economic  consumption  was  rather 
neglected,  but  of  recent  years  a  number  of  studies  have 
been  made  concerning  family  budgets.  The  commonly 
accepted  unit  of  measurement  is  a  family  of  five,  consisting 
of  the  father,  mother,  and  three  dependent  children.  The 
largest  single  item  in  the  family  budget  was  found  to  be 
for  the  expenditure  of  food.  This  ranged  from  about 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  entire  wages  of  the  lowest  income 
group  to  twenty-five  per  cent  in  the  case  of  families  in 
moderate  circumstances.  Rent  and  clothing  vie  for  second 
place  in  the  expenses  of  the  families  recently  studied,  for 
each  averaged  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  per  cent  of  the 
wages.  The  amount  spent  for  rent  increases  as  we  go  up 
the  social  scale,  but  the  proportion  of  the  total  income  so 
consumed  is  remarkably  constant. 

In  the  fourth  place  is  the  expenditure  for  light  and  heat, 
which  varies  from  five  to  eight  per  cent.     Transportation 
may  or  may  not  be  an  important  item  in  the   Minor 
expense  account,  according  to  the  locality  con-   *tems' 
sidered.     The  amount  left  for  all  other  purposes  varies 
from  nothing  in  the  case  of  the  very  poor  to  almost  fifty 
per  cent  in  the  case  of  those  in  moderate  circumstances. 
It  is  understood  that  the  amount  spent  for  the  necessities 
of  life,  such  as  food  and  clothing,  increases  as  we  ascend 
the  various  income  groups.     It  is  important,  however,  to 


422  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

observe  that  the  per  cent  of  the  total  income  spent  for 
such  purposes  steadily  declines.  As  we  go  from  the 
poorer  groups  to  those  in  comfortable  circumstances,  the 
proportion,  as  well  as  the  amount  spent  for  all  other  pur- 
poses, steadily  increases.  Indeed,  this  margin  of  expen- 
diture above  the  actual  necessities  of  life  is  regarded  as  the 
test  of  a  desirable  standard  of  living.  In  it  are  included 
expenditures  for  recreation,  amusement,  insurance,  saving, 
and  incidentals. 

A  study  of  family  budgets  reveals  many  interesting  dif- 
ferences in  various  standards  of  living.  As  a  rule  the 

.   .          standards  of  living  of  our  native  communities 

Variations:  B 

Among  are  higher  than  those  of  the  foreign  born,  and 
the  standards  of  the  white  communities  are 
higher  than  those  of  the  colored.  Low  standards  of  living 
are  both  a  cause  and  an  effect  of  low  wages.  Again,  within 
the  same  income  group,  there  are  interesting  differences 
in  family  budgets.  Some  immigrant  groups,  for  example, 
spend  relatively  more  on  food,  and  others  relatively  more 
on  clothing.  Certain  groups  are  very  improvident,  while 
others  are  parsimonious.  Within  a  great  city,  there  may 
be  immigrant  colonies  and  negro  settlements,  which  afford 
an  interesting  comparison  in  the  matter  of  standards  of 
living.  Each  group  clings  to  the  old  customs,  as  can  be 
seen  in  characteristic  foods,  clothing,  and  forms  of  recre- 
ation. The  new  generation  shows  its  Americanized  char- 
acter in  the  changed  standards  of  living. 

City  and  country  also  afford  an  interesting  comparison. 

City  workers  often  spend  a  relatively  greater  proportion 

Among          of  their  wages  upon  clothing  than  do  those  in 

the  country.     A  study  of  budgets  would  show 

different  sets  of  consumption  values.     In  general,  the  cost 


Standards  of  Living  423 

of  living  in  the  country  is  lower  than  that  in  the  city. 
Consequently,  a  higher  standard  of  living  can  be  main- 
tained upon  the  same  monetary  income.  A  small  frame 
house  can  be  rented  in  the  country  for  the  same  amount 
needed  for  a  few  rooms  in  the  city.  Again,  the  cost  of 
certain  foods  is  relatively  lower  in  the  country.  Investi- 
gations have  found  similar  differences  among  various  cities 
in  the  matter  of  the  cost  of  living. 

Minimum  Standards.  —  The  minimum  wage  under 
which  a  normal  standard  of  living  can  be  maintained  has 
been  variously  estimated.  For  the  normal  fam- 


ily,  in  1910,  the  annual  sum  of  seven  hundred   investi- 

'  .    .  gations. 

dollars  was  fixed  upon  as  a  minimum  in  certain 
places.  For  larger  cities,  like  New  York,  Dr.  Chapin  esti- 
mated that  a  yearly  income  of  less  than  eight  hundred 
dollars  was  not  sufficient  to  maintain  a  normal  standard 
of  living  for  a  family  of  five.  A  similar  sum  was  fixed  upon 
after  an  investigation  of  the  stock  yard  district  of  Chicago. 
There  were,  however,  at  that  time  five  million  industrial 
workers  in  the  United  States,  who  were  annually  earning 
six  hundred  dollars  or  less.  Although  there  was  a  high  pro- 
portion of  single  men  in  the  ranks  of  unskilled  labor  due 
to  immigration,  a  considerable  number  of  workers  were  try- 
ing to  support  families.  At  that  time,  sixty-five  per  cent 
of  the  workers  in  the  steel  industry  of  Pittsburgh,  "the 
city  of  a  thousand  millionaires,"  were  classified  as  unskilled 
laborers  with  wages  ranging  from  a  little  over  four  hun- 
dred to  a  little  over  five  hundred  dollars.  A  wage  lower 
than  the  minimum  required  to  support  a  decent  standard 
of  living  seemed  to  have  been  the  rule  in  the  New  York 
tenements,  in  the  stock  yard  section  of  Chicago,  and  in 
the  industrial  towns  of  Pennsylvania. 


4.24  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

With  the  World  War  came  the  great  increase  in  prices. 
There  began  a  race  between  increased  income  and  increased 

Effects  of  cost  °^  ^vmg-  It  was  easily  seen  tnat  an 
the  War:  increased  wage  did  not  give  an  equivalent  real 
On  wages:  wage>  Although  the  cost  of  living  went  up  for 
all  consumers,  wages  went  up  very  irregularly.  The  salaried 
man's  wage  increase  fell  far  short  of  the  increased  cost  of 
living.  The  wages  of  organized  labor  went  up  more  .rapidly 
than  did  those  of  unorganized  labor.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  wages  of  many  groups  of  skilled  and  semi-skilled 
labor  doubled  and,  in  some  cases,  even  trebled  during  that 
period.  There  was  an  increased  demand  for  labor,  and 
immigration  ceased  to  provide  a  supply  of  unskilled  labor. 
The  beginnings  of  this  rise  in  wages  during  the  War  can  be 
seen  in  the  income  tax  returns  for  1917.  This  showed  that 
three  and  a  half  million  persons,  or  approximately  seventeen 
per  cent  of  the  twenty  million  American  families,  were 
receiving  annual  incomes  of  over  a  thousand  dollars.  If  we 
allow  for  items  and  persons  not  shown  upon  these  returns,  the 
percentage  can  be  stretched  to  twenty-five  or  even  thirty. 
This  rapid  but  irregular  increase  in  wages  continued  up  to, 
and  even  a  short  time  after,  the  close  of  the  World  War. 
From  an  investigation  made  in  the  industrial  establish- 
ments of  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts,  Professor 
David  Friday  estimated  that  the  average  annual  wage  in 
1919  was  about  thirteen  hundred  dollars.  He  further 
estimated  that  wages  increased  a  little  over  two  hundred 
per  cent  between  1913  and  1919.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  these  statistics  do  not  include  such  salaried 
groups  as  clerks,  policemen,  and  postal  employees.  He 
argued  further  that  the  problem  was  one  of  increased  pro- 
duction rather  than  simply  a  matter  of  wealth  distribution. 


Standards  of  Living  425 

For  example,  if  all  incomes  of  over  five  thousand  dollars  a 
year  were  divided  up  among  those  making  less,  there 
would  have  been  only  two  hundred  dollars  additional 
apiece. 

The  older  attempts  to  express  standards  of  living  in 
terms  of  money  were  rendered  valueless  by  the  increased 
cost  of  living  brought  about  by  the  World  War.  on  cost  of 
The  close  of  the  War  found  the  general  level  of  li<dng' 
prices  approximately  twice  as  high  as  before  the  conflict. 
Charts  can  be  prepared  to  show  this  advance  by  means  of 
selected  commodities,  whose  increases  in  price  have  been 
expressed  in  percentages  and  then  averaged.  Such  statistics 
of  price  changes  are  known  as  index  numbers.  It  is  also 
interesting  to  express  upon  the  same  chart  the  changes  in 
prices  and  the  changes  in  wages.  In  this  manner  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  made  an  investigation  during  the 
War  of  conditions  among  the  ship  workers  in  the  cities 
along  the  Delaware  River.  The  sum  of  fifteen  hundred 
dollars  was  fixed  upon  at  that  time  as  the  minimum  sum 
upon  which  a  decent  standard  of  living  could  be  maintained 
by  a  family  of  five  persons.  In  1918,  the  Philadelphia 
Bureau  of  Research  published  an  itemized  report  showing 
that  the  same  normal  family  of  five  required  an  income  of 
eighteen  hundred  dollars  to  maintain  a  minimum  standard 
of  living.  Other  investigations  at  about  the  same  time 
determined  upon  a  slightly  lower  sum.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  declaration  of  the  garment  workers  placed  twenty-five 
hundred  dollars  as  its  estimate  of  the  wage  required  for 
maintaining  a  normal  standard  of  living  at  that  time. 

High  prices  continued  for  a  time  after  the  Civil  War, 
but  there  finally  began  a  gradual  decline  which  continued 
more  or  less  regularly  throughout  the  remainder  of  the 


426  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

century.  We  have  already  no  ted  the  relationship  between 
prices  and  the  quantity  of  money.  Just  as  prices  gradually 
The  declined  after  the  Civil  War  period,  so,  not  long 

conclusion.     af ter   ^  dose  Qf  the  WorJd  War>  the  process  of 

deflation  began  in  America.  Moreover,  there  appeared  to 
be  a  greater  supply  of  goods  in  the  country  than  had  been 
imagined.  War  prosperity  was  succeeded  by  a  period  of 
business  depression  and  a  drop  in  prices  began,  with  its 
consequent  effect  on  wages.  It  is  likely  that  in  spite  of 
temporary  fluctuations,  the  general  tendency  will  be  down- 
ward for  some  time  to  come,  until  another  period  of  busi- 
ness expansion  results  in  a  new  upward  movement.  Fall- 
ing prices  mean  an  increased  purchasing  power  of  money. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  bring  unemployment  and  de- 
creased wages  to  the  worker.  It  is  as  difficult  to  keep 
falling  wages  proportionate  to  falling  prices  as  to  keep 
rising  prices  and  rising  wages  proportionate.  It  is  the  old 
story  of  attempting  to  keep  real  wages  constant,  in  spite  of 
changing  prices  and  changing  money  wages. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  the  expression  "standard  of  living." 

2.  Is  there  one  standard  of  living?     Explain. 

3.  Show  how  standards  of  living  are  relative. 

4.  Illustrate  the  principle  of  diminishing  satisfaction  in  con- 
sumption. 

5.  Enumerate  some  characteristics  of  economic  wants. 

6.  Explain  what  you  understand  by  "conspicuous  consumption." 

7.  Explain  the  difference  between  real  and  money  wages. 

8.  Why  is  the  family  used  as  the  unit  of  consumption? 

9.  What  is  a  family  budget? 

10.  Name  some  of  the  important  elements  in  it. 

11.  Show  the  relative  changes  in  budgets  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  income  groups. 


Standards  of  Living  427 

12.  Show  some  of  the  variations  which  can  be  found  in  standards 
of  living. 

13.  What  were  some  estimates  of  a  minimum  standard  of  living 
before  the  World  War?    After  the  World  War? 

14.  Were  all  the  citizens  of  prosperous  America  enjoying  such  a 
standard? 

15.  Show  the  effects  of  the  War  upon  the  general  price  level. 

1 6.  Discuss  the  effects  of  the  War  upon  wages. 

17.  Enumerate  some  of  the  more  recent  attempts  to  express  a 
minimum  standard  of  living  in  terms  of  money. 

1 8.  Do  you  believe  that  the  government  should  fix  a  minimum 
wage  for  certain  industries?    Why  or  why  not?    What  machinery 
would  you  employ? 

19.  Compare  wages  to-day  with  wages  at  the  close  of  the  World 
War. 

20.  Have  prices  declined  or  risen  since  the  War?    How  has  this 
affected  real  wages? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Oriental  and  American  standards  of  living. 

2.  Standards  of  living  among  the  immigrants. 

3.  Standards  of  living  among  the  negroes. 

4.  Your  family  budget,  or  the  family  budget  of  Mr.  X. 

5.  A  chart  showing  recent  changes  in  prices. 

6.  The  War  and  the  standard  of  living. 

7.  An  analysis  of  some  recent  report  upon  a  minimum  standard 
of  living. 

8.  Present  wages  in  the  chief  industries  in  your  community. 

9.  The  simple  versus  the  many-sided  life. 

10.  Progress  as  measured  by  the  expansion  of  wants. 

REFERENCES 

BURCH,  H.  R.    American  Economic  Life.     Chapters  V,  VI  and  VII. 
CHAPIN,   R.    C.     The   Standard   of  Living   Among   Workingmen's 

Families  in  New  York. 

KING,  W.I.     The  Wealth  and  Income  of  the  People  of  the  United  States. 
Reports  of  Federal  Commission  on  Industrial  Relations. 


428  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Reports  of  Philadelphia  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research. 
STREIGHTHOFF,  F.  H.    The  Standard  of  Living  Among  the  Industriai 

People  of  America. 

STREIGHTHOFF,  F.  H.     The  Distribution  of  Incomes. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Bulletins. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  POVERTY 

I.  Nature  of  poverty 

1.  Definition  of  terms 

2.  Extent  of: 

a.  Poverty 

b.  Pauperism 

3.  The  point  of  view: 

a.  Change  of  attitude 

b.  Reformers'  errors 

c.  Theory  of  evolution 
II.  Causes  of  poverty 

1.  Environmental: 

a.  Physical  environment 

b.  Economic  environment 

c.  Social  environment 

d.  Defects  in  government 

e.  Defects  in  education 

2.  Individual: 

a.  Degeneracy 

b.  Disease 

c.  Intemperance 

d.  Crime 

e.  Desertion 

/.   Death  of  main  support 
g.  Old  age 
h.  Defectives 
i.    Indolence 

Were  it  possible  to  guarantee  a  comfortable  standard  of 
living  to  every  American  family,  no  problem  of  poverty 


430  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

could  exist.  When  national  prosperity  is  sufficiently  dif- 
fused throughout  the  community  so  that  each  individual 
or  family  is  adequately  provided  for,  the  goal  of  social 
welfare,  economically  considered,  is  attained.  Unfor- 
tunately, no  such  situation  has  ever  prevailed  in  any 
human  society — democratic  or  otherwise.  In  fact,  there 
exist  everywhere  certain  subnormal  groups  which  are 
more  or  less  in  debt  to  society.  These  are  known  as  the 
social  debtor  classes  and  fall  into  three  separate  groups— 
the  dependents,  the  delinquents,  and  the  defectives.  The 
first  includes  paupers;  the  second,  criminals;  and  the  third, 
physical  and  mental  defectives.  It  is  now  our  purpose,  in 
this  and  succeeding  chapters,  to  examine  in  detail  the 
problems  arising  from  the  existence  of  each  of  these  classes 
in  American  democracy. 

Nature  of  Poverty. — In  a  discussion  of  poverty  it  is 

necessary  at  the  outset  to  define  several  terms.     That  class 

.Definition      in  society  with  the  lowest  income,  or  standard 

-of  terms.       Q£  1^^  js  usually  referred  to  as  "the  poor." 

With  the  advance  of  civilization,  the  standards  of  living 

of  both  rich  and  poor  have  been  raised.     The  well-to-do 

-classes  live  in  luxury  unknown  a  few  centuries  ago  to  the 

^corresponding  group.     The  poor  of  to-day  also  possess 

more  comforts  than  those  enjoyed  by  a  similar  group  in 

earlier  society.     The  poor,  however,  in  the  sense  of  the 

lowest  income  class  have  persisted  in  society  because  our 

social   system   has   always   been   divided   into   economic 

groups.     The  rise  of  standards  of  living  goes  on  in  all 

classes,   but  in   spite  of  this  upward   movement    the  poor 

have  continued  to  exist  on  a  minimum  of  subsistence.     In 

contradistinction  to  this  popular  use  of  the  term  poor,  the 

sociologist  employs  the  term  poverty  to  mean  the  condition 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  431 

of  only  that  group  whose  income,  and  therefore  standard 
of  living,  is  so  abnormally  low  that  neither  normal  health 
nor  efficiency  can  be  maintained.  .  It  is  in  this  sense,  and 
to  such  a  group,  that  the  term  poverty  will  be  applied  in 
this  chapter.  It  may  be  possible  for  the  advance  of  civili- 
zation to  eliminate  such  a  group  by  raising  its  income  ta 
an  amount  required  to  maintain  an  efficient  standard  of 
living.  The  pauper  group  is  a  part  of  the  poverty  class, 
just  as  this  latter  class  is  a  part  of  the  general  group  called 
the  poor.  Paupers  are  those  individuals  or  families,  in 
almshouses  or  in  their  own  homes,  who  require  economic 
help  from  various  charity  organizations.  They  constitute 
the  real  group  of  social  debtors,  for  pauperism  is  essen- 
tially a  state  of  dependency.  Those  individuals,  however, 
who  live  in  a  condition  of  poverty  but  are  too  proud  to 
receive  outside  help,  should  not  be  referred  to  as  paupers. 
The  extent  of  poverty  is  difficult  to  determine,  for  social 
measurements  can  not  be  made  with  absolute  and  undevi- 
ating  accuracy.  Standards  of  health  and  effi-  Extent  of: 
ciency  vary  with  the  individual  judgment  of  the  Poverty- 
observer.  Again,  the  purchasing  power  of  income  fluc- 
tuates with  the  rise  and  fall  of  prices.  Since  poverty  has 
an  economic  basis,  its  extent  throughout  the  general 
population  varies  greatly  with  industrial  prosperity  and 
depression.  Poverty  is  also  much  higher  in  the  city  than 
in  rural  communities.  Several  individuals,  a  few  years  ago, 
made  special  studies  of  the  extent  of  poverty  in  a  par- 
ticular locality.  Charles  Booth  made  the  first  great  inves- 
tigation of  its  kind  for  London,  and  Rowntree  undertook 
a  similar  study  for  the  city  of  York.  In  these  cities  the 
estimated  proportions  of  those  living  in  poverty,  that  is, 
below  an  income  required  to  maintain  the  normal  stand- 


432  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ard  of  health  and  efficiency,  were  thirty  and  seven-tenths 
per  cent  and  twenty-seven  and  eight-tenths  per  cent, 
respectively.  Robert  Hunter,  by  similar  investigations  in 
our  own  country,  estimated  that  the  proportion  of  those 
living  in  poverty  in  our  large  cities  and  industrial  centers 
rarely  fell  below  twenty-five  per  cent.  It  is  smaller,  of 
course,  in  the  rural  sections,  but  for  our  country  at  large 
the  expression  "the  submerged  tenth"  is  probably  not  an 
exaggeration. 

The  extent  of  pauperism  is  almost  equally  difficult  to 
determine.  The  almshouse  often  shelters  such  different 
groups  of  dependents  as  the  sick,  the  feeble- 
minded, the  aged,  and  the  shiftless.  Records 
are  often  poorly  kept  and,  unfortunately,  many  institu- 
tions for  long  periods  of  time  kept  no  records  whatsoever. 
However,  in  1920,  the  United  States  census  placed  the  num- 
ber of  dependents  in  our  various  institutions  at  somewhat 
less  than  one  million.  This  estimate,  however,  has  little 
real  significance  because  most  paupers  are  not  in  alms- 
houses,  but  are  cared  for  by  what  is  known  as  the  system 
of  outdoor  relief.  The  total  number  of  dependents  is 
probably  between  four  and  five  millions.  The  support 
of  this  army  of  dependents  requires  annually  about  a  half 
billion  dollars.  If  we  combine  the  paupers  with  the  poverty 
group,  the  total  number  in  America  of  such  persons  in 
ordinary  times  will  probably  reach  the  fifteen  million  mark. 
In  Europe,  the  World  War  brought  devastation  and  untold 
poverty  to  millions  of  people;  while,  in  our  own  country, 
it  finally  brought  a  serious  problem  of  unemployment 
with  its  attending  economic  hardships. 

The  old  attitude  toward  poverty  was  that  it  always 
had  existed  and  always  would  continue  to  exist  so  long  as 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  433 

the  world  endured.     Almsgiving  was  regarded  as  a  religious 
duty  and  an  indication  of  the  piety  of  the  donor.     The 
monasteries  of  the  Christian  Church  sheltered 
the  poor  and  unfortunate  of  the  Middle  Ages.    of  view: 


So,  to-day,  innumerable  beggars  in  the  Moham- 
medan  countries  of  the  world  continually  appeal 
to  the  traveler  for  '  l  alms  for  the  love  of  Allah.  '  '  The  modern 
view  point,  however,  is  that  poverty  in  its  narrow  socio- 
logical meaning  is  unnecessary.  The  same  scientific  spirit 
which  has  rooted  out  smallpox,  yellow  fever,  and  other  phys- 
ical contagions  is  striving  to  cure  the  social  disease  of  pov- 
erty. The  remedy  is  not  indiscriminate  almsgiving,  because 
that  kind  of  charity  only  increases  pauperism.  The  causes 
which  produce  this  unfortunate  condition  must  be  elimina- 
ted by  the  individual  and  by  society.  Poverty  will  then 
diminish  in  the  same  way  that  the  elimination  of  the  mosquito 
has  reduced  the  amount  of  yellow  fever  in  the  tropics. 

A  number  of  social  reformers  have  made  the  error  of 
assuming  that  poverty  had  but  one  cause.  Thus  Malthus 
believed  poverty  was  due  to  the  pressure  of  Reformers' 
population  upon  food  supply.  Karl  Marx  errors' 
sought  its  explanation  in  the  ownership  of  the  instruments 
of  production  by  the  capitalistic  class.  Socialism  was 
therefore  his  remedy.  To  Henry  George,  poverty  was  the 
result  of  the  rise  in  rent,  and  only  the  Single  Tax  could 
remove  it.  Poverty,  however,  is  a  complex  phenomenon 
and  its  causes  are  manifold.  They  are  both  objective  and 
subjective.  Not  only  environment,  but  heredity  also 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  analyzing  the  causes  of 
poverty.  Each  case  of  dependency  has  its  roots  in  a 
number  of  causes  which  lie  both  in  the  individual  and  in 
his  environment. 
cc 


434  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Evolution  in  the  field  of  biology  may  offer  us  a  helpful 
parallel.  Society  may  be  regarded  for  most  individuals  as 
Theory  oj  &  form  of  the  struggle  for  existence.  Some 
evolution.  environments  are  more  favorable  to  survival 
than  others.  Again,  variations  exist  between  individuals; 
some  are  stronger,  wiser,  and  more  efficient  than  others. 
We  have  seen  that  in  human  society  artificial  handicaps 
may  also  exist,  for  there  is  not  always  equality  of  oppor- 
tunity. Modern  selection  does  not  always  eliminate  the 
unfit,  but  merely  places  them  in  the  lower  or  poverty 
group.  Altruism  in  modern  civilization  expresses  itself  in 
the  building  of  almshouses  and  in  the  organization  of 
charity.  Human  society  also  differs  from  the  animal  world 
because  of  the  existence  of  a  directive  intelligence,  by  means 
of  which  man  may  transform  his  environment  and  make 
purposive  changes  for  his  own  betterment. 

Causes  of  Poverty. — A  people  may  suffer  from  poverty 

because  of  the  barrenness  of  the  physical  environment  due 

to  poor  soil  or  other  natural  restrictions.     Migra- 

Environ-          ,.          ,.  .   , 

mental:         tions  from  poorer  to  richer  regions  then  result  m 

FJ^ironment.  wars*  A£ain> there  may  be  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions,  such  as  an  excess  of  moisture  or  a 
lack  of  rainfall,  as  found  in  swamp  lands  and  deserts. 
Scientific  agriculture  has  done  much  for  the  productivity 
of  such  regions  and  has  made  them  more  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  larger  population.  Natural  forces  may  produce 
floods,  earthquakes,  storms  or  droughts,  and  cause  a  given 
locality  to  suffer  from  temporary  poverty  or  even  pauperism. 
Illustrations  of  this  fact  are  found  in  the  Johnstown  flood, 
in  the  San  Francisco  earthquake,  and  in  the  storm  of 
Galveston.  Fires  in  our  great  cities  have,  by  force  of 
accident,  reduced  many  families  of  means  to  actual  want. 


The  Problem  of  Poverty 


435 


436  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

Again,  certain  diseases,  like  malaria  and  hook-worm, 
flourish  in  particular  environments.  Inhabitants  of  these 
regions  are  regarded  as  indolent  and  shiftless,  whereas 
their  constitutions  are  really  undervitalized  by  environ- 
mental circumstances. 

The  chief  objective  causes  of  poverty,  however,  lie  in 
the  economic  environment.  By  the  use  of  improved 
Economic  methods  of  production,  western  nations  have 
environment.  reached  a  better  economic  adjustment  than  the 
Orient,  where  poverty  is  more  rampant.  Nevertheless, 
we  have  seen  that  our  own  progressive  and  democratic 
society  permits  many  maladjustments,  such  as  occupational 
diseases,  industrial  accidents,  and  child  labor.  Social 
insurance  is  an  important  ally  in  the  war  against  pauperism. 
Low  wages  afford  a  most  important  cause  of  poverty.  The 
total  income  for  many  families  is  insufficient  to  maintain  a 
normal  standard  of  living.  Unemployment  is  another 
economic  maladjustment  resulting  in  poverty.  Cycles  of 
business  depression  and  seasonal  unemployment  are 
attended  by  an  enormous  rise  in  the  poverty  rate.  Periods 
of  financial  distress  and  industrial  crises  cause  a  terrific 
strain  upon  relief  organizations.  Strikes  and  lockouts 
have  a  similar  effect.  That  changes  in  industry  may 
produce  temporary  hardship  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
transition  from  the  domestic  to  the  factory  system.  A  bad 
system  of  land  tenure,  such  as  existed  in  England  during 
the  time  of  the  enclosures,  produces  much  poverty.  The 
rapid  industrialization  of  the  United  States  since  the 
Civil  War  has  had  its  accompanying  social  cost  in  increased 
poverty.  Before  this  transition,  the  great  Mississippi 
Valley  for  many  years  furnished  a  supply  of  free  land  to 
those  in  our  own  country  who  cared  to  move  westward. 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  437 

In  fact,  the  poverty  problem  in  America  may  be  said  to 
date  from  the  increasing  exhaustion  of  this  supply  of  free 
land.  Other  economic  causes  of  poverty  may  be  found  in 
various  maladjustments  brought  about  by  changing 
•economic  conditions. 

Social  environment  is  another  factor  in  the  problem  of 
poverty.  Unsanitary  living  conditions  may  be  as  much 
the  cause,  as  the  result,  of  poverty.  We  have  social 
already  spoken  of  bad  housing  conditions  in  enmronment- 
connection  with  the  problem  of  the  city.  Such  conditions 
may  produce  sickness,  which  often  results  in  the  death  or 
unemployment  of  the  wage  earner.  Thus,  the  family 
becomes  dependent  upon  the  charity  of  the  community,  a 
situation  which  might  have  been  obviated  by  different 
living  conditions.  Sickness  or  death  of  the  bread  winner 
may  be  merely  the  immediate  and  most  obvious  cause  of 
poverty  resulting  from  bad  housing.  Such  distinctions  are 
important,  for  in  each  case  of  poverty  there  are  numerous 
contributory  causes.  Again,  the  associations  that  pre- 
vail in  the  congested  districts  of  a  great  city  may  injure 
the  morals,  as  much  as  the  health,  of  those  concerned. 
Idleness,  shiftlessness,  or  degeneracy  in  family  life  may 
thus  result  in  poverty.  The  saloon,  the  immoral  dance 
hall,  vicious  theatres  and  amusement  places  have  often  led 
to  the  dissipation  of  funds  required  for  the  necessities  of 
life.  Moreover,  such  sordid  pleasures  inculcate  ideas  other 
than  those  of  steady  industry  and  produce  a  degenerating 
effect  upon  the  health  and  morals  of  the  worker.  Again, 
unrestricted  immigration  may  be  as  injurious  to  the  immi- 
grant himself  as  to  the  American  worker,  whose  wages  and 
standards  of  living  he  lowers.  Our  study  of  immigration 
has  shown  how  large  a  percentage  of  the  recipients  of  char- 


438  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ity  are  foreign  born.  Unwise  philanthropy  as  a  factor 
in  poverty  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  chapter.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  state  here  in  this  connection  that,  so 
long  as  begging  is  more  profitable  than  working,  poverty 
will  spread  throughout  society. 

Political  corruption  often  returns  to  power  the  legislator 
who  fails  to  pass  laws  for  the  good  of  those  who  elect  him. 
Defects  in  Because  of  inadequate  legislation,  monopoly 
government.  prjces  take  too  large  a  share  of  the  laborer's 
wages,  child  labor  continues  to  harass  his  family,  and  the 
building  inspector  fails  to  report  his  landlord's  condemned 
tenement.  Legislation  is  no  panacea  for  social  ills,  but 
wise  laws  and  their  proper  enforcement  are  necessary  to 
progressive  adjustment.  They  are  an  essential  part  of 
any  scheme  of  social  reform.  Again,  bribery  of  the  voter 
may  result  in  the  purchase  of  the  necessities  of  life  for  some 
poverty-stricken  individual.  The  ward  "boss"  may  be  to 
him  a  greater  help  in  time  of  trouble  than  the  local  charity 
organization.  Such  a  policy,  however,  is  to  say  the  least 
short  sighted,  because  it  does  not  eliminate  the  causes  and 
conditions  which  give  rise  to  poverty.  The  poor  man's 
vote  should  compel  beneficial  legislation  for  social  reform. 
The  attitude  toward  government  is  changing  and  its 
sphere  of  activity  widening.  Like  other  institutions  of 
society,  government  is  being  socialized.  It  must  provide 
for  the  public  health  and  recreation,  as  well  as  for  the  pub- 
lic safety.  Bad  housing  conditions  and  unsanitary  work- 
ing conditions  are  a  reproach  to  good  government. 

Among  other  ideals,  education  should  aim  to  make  the 
individual  self-supporting.  Lack  of  industrial  training  in 
our  public  schools  has  been  one  cause  of  dependency.  Until 
recently,  it  often  happened  that  a  boy  could  not  receive 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  439 

training  in  a  trade  at  public  expense  unless  he  committed. a 
crime  and  was  sent  to   the  industrial   school  Defects  in 
or   to  the  reformatory.      Statistics  also   show   educat™- 
that   the   proportion  of  illiteracy  and  ignorance  among 
dependents  is  abnormally  high. 

Let  us  now  inquire  into  those  causes  of  poverty  which 
are  individual  rather  than  environmental  in  nature.     Pau- 
perism is  an  acquired  characteristic  and  conse-    Individuaj 
quently  not  hereditary.     But  a  physical  and    causes: 

,    ,     ,  .  Degeneracy. 

mental  degeneracy,  causing  poverty  or  pauper- 
ism, may  be  inherent  in  the  germ  cell  and  therefore  heredi- 
tary. This  fact  would  seem  to  explain  why  pauperism  may 
"run"  in  a  given  family  and  be  regarded  by  the  unin- 
formed as  hereditary.  Such  degeneracy  may  take  various 
forms  in  the  second  generation.  The  offspring  of  a  drunken 
parent  may  incline  toward  both  drunkenness  and  pauper- 
ism. Neither  characteristic  is  strictly  speaking  hereditary, 
as  is  the  inherent  weakness  or  degeneracy  which  produces 
it.  The  physical  and  mental  stamina  of  certain  stocks 
may  be  subnormal,  and  their  offspring,  under  force  of  cir- 
cumstances, may  drift  into  one  of  the  various  social  debtor 
classes.  They  may  also  be  regarded  as  inferior  variations, 
which  cannot  care  for  themselves  in  society's  struggle  for 
existence.  Certain  studies  of  degenerate  families  seem  to 
bear  out  this  conclusion.  For  example,  a  study  of  the 
Jukes  family  by  Dugdale  shows  a  long  line  of  descendants 
traced  in  prison  records,  almshouses,  and  drunkards'  graves. 
The  influence  of  the  social  environment  of  a  particular 
family  is  also  important,  but  must  not  be  confused  with  its 
heredity.  The  only  members  of  the  Jukes  family,  for 
example,  who  amounted  to  anything  were  those  who  left 
their  old  associations  and  started  life  afresh  in  some  new 


440  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

community.  Dr.  Goddard  finds  his  clue  to  degeneracy 
and  pauperism  in  feeble-mindedness,  and  estimates  that 
one-half  of  the  inmates  of  almshouses  are  feeble-minded. 
Since  feeble-mindedness  is  hereditary,  and  not  acquired, 
we  are  able  to  understand  how  many  cases  of  pauperism 
may  appear  in  the  same  family.  This  is  the  theme  of  his 
njq^J  readable  little  story  of  the  Kallikak  family.  Only 
segregation  of  the  feeble-minded  will  prevent  the  propaga- 
tion of  their  kind  and  the  passing  on  to  future  generations 
of  degeneracy  and  pauperism. 

Disease  is  a  most  important  cause  of  poverty.     Dr. 
Devine  states  that  seventy-five  per  cent  of  poverty  is  due 
to  disease;  not  twenty-five  per  cent  as  is  usually 
supposed.     It  is  certain  that  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  per  cent  of  all  cases  applying  for  relief  represent  a 
temporary  or  permanent  disability  due  to  sickness.     This 
is  the  individual  expression  of  such  objective  causes  as 
unsanitary  living  conditions,  improper  housing,  bad  work- 
ing conditions,  and  dangerous  trades. 

Although  the  importance  of  intemperance  as  a  cause  of 
poverty  has  probably  been  exaggerated,  nearly  one-fourth 
intemper-  of  all  cases  coming  before  charity  organizations 
were  traced  to  the  ravages  of  alcohol.  The 
Committee  of  Fifty,  who  investigated  this  subject  several 
years  ago,  found  that  over  forty-one  per  cent  of  the 
inmates  of  almshouses  owed  their  condition  directly  or  indi- 
rectly to  alcoholic  excess.  Before  the  advent  of  prohibition, 
many  families  lived  in  want  and  squalor  because  the  bread 
winner  persisted  in  spending  his  income  in  the  saloon. 
As  a  destroyer  of  efficiency  alcohol  was  a  frequent  cause 
of  unemployment.  Intemperance  is  a  subjective  cause  of 
poverty,  but  it  has  its  roots  in  numerous  objective  causes 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  441 

such  as  pernicious  social  customs,  long  hours  of  work,  and 
poor  facilities  for  recreation.  Immorality  must  also  be 
mentioned,  for  Dugdale  places  it  even  ahead  of  intem- 
perance as  the  cause  of  degeneracy  in  the  Jukes  family. 

The  imprisonment  of  the  bread  winner  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  poverty  to  his  family.     Society  shelters,  feeds,  and 
clothes  the  criminal,  but  permits  innocent  mem- 
bers of  his  family  to  suffer.     To  remedy  this 
injustice  some  states  have  passed  laws  by  which  the  prod- 
ucts of  convict  labor  are  turned  over  to  their  families. 

Desertion  by  the  head  of  the  family  appears  in  from  five 
to  ten  per  cent  of  all  cases  of  dependency  in  our  large  cities. 
Children  may  be  abandoned  by  their  parents,  or 

Desertion. 

wives  by  their  husbands.     In  the  case  of  many 
destitute  families,  relatives  show  a  remarkable  indifference 
to   their   condition.     Charity   workers   find   a   surprising 
amount  of  neglect  upon  the  part  of  near  relations  and  a 
failure  to  help  in  cases  of  dependency. 

Death  of  the  main  support  appears  in  from  ten  to  twenty 
per  cent  of  relief  cases.     Some  form  of  social  insurance  for 
the  poor,  or  a  sound  life  insurance  system  within   Dgath  . 
their  reach,   is  earnestly  advocated.    Widows  main 
and  orphans,  however,  have  always  appealed  to 
human  sympathy,  and  funds  given  by  philanthropists  have 
founded  numerous  institutions  for  the  care  of  such  persons. 
Charity  workers  find  little  difficulty  in  caring  for  orphans, 
for  more  funds  are  at  their  disposal  for  this  group  of  des- 
titutes than  for  any  other. 

Old  age  is  frequently  a  cause  of  dependency,  and  the 
almshouse  is  often  the  final  home  for  the  aged.  Such  a 
situation  is  cruelly  unfair.  Many  old  persons  have  been 
industrious  workers  and  have  reared  large  families.  But, 


442  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

now,  having  outgrown  their  period  of  usefulness,  they  are 
incapacitated  for  further  work.     Old  age  pensions  would 
lift  the  stigma  of  the  poor-house  from  the  aged, 
who  have  no  means  of  support  for  their  declining 
years.     Society  should  at  least  provide  separate  and  com- 
fortable homes  for  the  aged,  where  husband  and  wife  will 
not  be  parted  and  where  they  will  not  come  into  contact 
with  the  feeble-minded,  the  degenerate,  and  other  sub- 
normal groups  found  in  the  average  almshouse. 

Defectives  are  frequently  public  charges.     The  crippled 

and  the  blind  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the  beggars 

upon  our  streets.     At  present,  the  almshouse  is 

the  general  depository  for  most  of  these  varied 

groups.     Special  methods  of  treatment  for  each  class  of 

defectives  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter  in  which  this 

group  of  social  debtors  will  be  carefully  analyzed. 

Shiftlessness  and  laziness  are  individual  characteristics 
which  may  lead  to  poverty  and  pauperism.     It  is  esti- 
mated that  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  all 

Indolence.  . 

cases  of  distress  may  be  attributed  to  these  indi- 
vidual weaknesses.  However,  a  number  of  so-called  cases 
of  laziness  were  found,  upon  physical  examination,  to  be 
due  to  an  undervitalized  health  condition.  For  example, 
the  shiftlessness  of  the  "poor  white  trash"  of  the  South 
was  found  in  some  cases  to  be  due  to  hook-worm.  Malaria 
may  play  the  same  role,  and  poor  health  and  malnutrition 
may  result  in  a  lowered  vitality.  Again,  retarded  school 
children  in  slum  districts  were  found  upon  examination 
to  be  underfed  and  anaemic.  Environment,  however,  will 
not  explain  every  such  case;  for  there  are  some  individuals 
who  are  inherently  lazy  and  shiftless.  Again,  many  poor 
people  are  in  a  condition  of  poverty 'because  of  their  own 


The  Problem  of  Poverty  443 

Improvidence.  A  lack  of  judgment  prevents  their  exer- 
cising a  wise  economy  in  applying  their  earnings  to  the 
purchase  of  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries.  Scar- 
city of  funds  also  necessitates  buying  in  small  quantities 
and  only  for  immediate  consumption.  Hence  the  poor  are 
often  over-charged.  For  these  reasons,  tactful  settlement 
workers  are  carefully  studying  the  manner  in  which  the 
poor  spend  their  small  incomes  and  are  seeking  to  advise 
them  as  to  what  constitutes  wise  economy. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  poverty  in  its  sociological  sense. 

2.  Distinguish  between  poverty  and  pauperism. 

3.  What  is  your  opinion  about  the  final  elimination  of  poverty? 

4.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  extent  of  poverty  in  the  United  States. 

5.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  extent  of  pauperism. 

6.  How  has  our  point  of  view  regarding  poverty  changed? 

7.  Why  is  it  important  to  study  the  causes  of  poverty? 

8.  What  mistakes  did  several  reformers  make? 

9.  Explain  poverty  from  the  standpoint  of  the  theory  of  evolution. 

10.  Explain  how  the  causes  of  poverty  overlap. 

11.  Distinguish  between  the  immediate  and  the  remote,  or  the 
main  and  the  contributory,  causes  of  poverty. 

12.  What  two-fold  classification  do  we  make  of  the  causes  of 
poverty? 

13.  Explain  the  relation  of  the  physical  environment  to  poverty. 
Give  illustrations.     Give  others  not  in  the  text. 

14.  Give  the  economic  causes  of  poverty. 

15.  Give  the  causes  resident  in  the  social  environment.     Name 
others  besides  those  in  the  text. 

1 6.  Show  how  one  factor  may  be  both  a  cause  and  a  result  of 
poverty. 

17.  What  defects  of  government  and  of  our  educational  system 
increase  poverty? 

1 8.  Explain  the  relation  of  degeneracy  to  pauperism. 


444  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

19.  Is  pauperism  hereditary  if  it  seems  to  "run"  in  the  same 
family  in  successive  generations? 

20.  Name  in  order  of  importance  the  various  causes  of  poverty 
resident  in  the  individual. 

21.  Discuss  each. 

22.  What  is  often  the  cause  of  laziness? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  relation  of  heredity  to  poverty. 

2.  The  causes  of  poverty  of  the  "X"  family.     (A  study  of  some 
poor  family  with  which  you  are  acquainted.    Distinguish  between 
immediate  and  remote  causes). 

3.  The  alleged  improvidence  of  the  poor  as  a  cause  of  poverty. 

4.  The  amount  of  poverty  in  the  largest  city  nearest  you. 

5.  The  effects  of  the  World  War  upon  poverty  in  Europe  and 
America. 

6.  Economic  causes  of  poverty.    (Prepare  as  complete  a  list  as 
possible  by  reviewing  the  earlier  sections  of  the  book.) 

7.  The  effect  of  prohibition  upon  poverty. 

8.  A  study  of  the  almshouse. 

9.  The  Jukes. 

10.  The  Kallikak  family. 

REFERENCES 

DEVINE,  E.  T.    Misery  and  Its  Causes. 

DUGDALE,  R.  L.    The  Jukes. 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems.  Chapter 
XIII. 

GODDARD,  H.  H.     The  Kallikak  Family. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.  Dependents,  Defectives  and  Delinquents.  Chap- 
ters I  to  IV. 

HUNTER,  R     Poverty. 

SMITH,  S.  G.    Social  Pathology. 

WARNER,  A.  G.    American  Charities.    Chapters  II  to  V* 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  CHARITY 

I.  History  of  charity 

1.  Early  times 

2.  Middle  Ages 

3.  England — the  poor  law 

4.  America — indoor  and  outdoor  relief: 

a.  The  difference 

b.  Relative  value 

5.  Germany — Elberfeld  system 

6.  The  modern  point  of  view: 

a.  Its  character 

b.  The  trend  of  progress 
II.  The  almshouse 

1.  General  character 

2.  Special  defects 

3.  Needed  reforms 

4.  The  remedies 

III.  Outdoor  and  private  relief 
i.  The  Church 
2    Medical  charities 

3.  Private  associations: 

a.  Their  nature 

b.  Their  dangers 

4.  Charity  organization  societies: 

a.  Methods 

b.  Justification 

5.  Principles  of  relief 

6.  Friendly  visiting  in  the  family 

7.  Social  settlements 

8.  Care  of  dependent  children 

445 


446  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

History  of  Charity.— Charity  in  its  old  sense  of  alms- 
giving is  a  very  ancient  practice  extolled  by  Hindu, 
Early  Chinese,  and  Egyptian  philosophers.  In  early 

times.  Athens  a  poor  tax  was  regularly  collected,  and 

in  Judea  the  synagogue  was  the  center  of  relief  for  the 
poor.  Its  successor,  the  Christian  Church,  attempted  in 
early  times  to  socialize  wealth  through  a  process  of  com- 
munism. One  of  the  first  officers  in  the  primitive  church 
was  the  deacon,  whose  chief  duty  was  to  look  after  the 
poor  of  the  congregation.  Ancient  Rome  was  said  to 
have  had  asylums  for  abandoned  children  and  for 
wounded  soldiers.  The  poor  may  have  sought  shelter  in 
the  public  baths  of  Rome,  as  they  do  at  present  in  our 
own  parks  and  public  buildings.  Trajan  is  reported  to 
have  cared  for  five  thousand  poor  children.  The  most 
famous  relief  in  Rome,  however,  was  what  was  known  as 
"  Caesar's  bread."  This  was  the  name  given  to  the  system 
whereby  the  poor  Roman  citizen  could  obtain  food  from 
the  public  granaries  free,  or  at  a  very  low  price.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  at  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  three 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  persons  were  registered  for 
the  free  distribution  of  grain.  Although  intended  as  a 
social  reform  by  Gracchus,  its  vicious  and  pauperizing 
influence  upon  the  Roman  people  may  be  seen  in  the 
laziness  and  immorality  of  the  later  Empire.  It  is  the 
classical  example  of  unwise  philanthropy  which  destroys 
independence  by  removing  the  necessity  for  work. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  almsgiving  was  regarded  as  a  method 

of  securing  the  favor  of  heaven.     The  effect  upon  the 

Middle         giver  seemed  more  important  than  the  result 

upon    the    recipient    of    alms.     The    medieval 

ascetic  spirit  founded  numerous  monasteries  which  served 


The  Organization  of  Charity  447 

as  inns  for  weary  pilgrims  and  travelers.  That  riches  were 
associated  with  sin,  and  poverty  with  saintly  character,  is 
well  illustrated  by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  and  by  the  Order  of 
Poor  Friars.  A  monastery  was  usually  the  center  of  alms- 
giving, and  indiscreet  charity  often  produced  a  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  beggars  who  thronged  the  doors 
of  the  beautiful  cathedrals.  The  Church,  however,  was 
the  only  organized  force  in  the  Middle  ages  which  attempted 
to  alleviate  distress  by  founding  hospitals,  asylums,  and 
retreats  for  children  and  unfortunates. 

With  the  break-up  of  serfdom,  European  nations  began 
to  pass  laws  against  vagrancy  and  wandering  serfs.  The 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII 

England — 

of  England  increased  the  amount  of  unrelieved  the  Poor 
distress.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Elizabeth, 
however,  that  the  State  began  to  supersede  the  Church  as 
the  dispensing  agent  of  charity.  Laws  were  passed  which 
became  the  foundations  of  the  famous  English  Poor  Law. 
The  parish  was  to  make  a  list  of  its  poor,  who  were  to  be 
helped  by  the  compulsory  contributions  of  the  more 
prosperous.  The  administration  of  these  laws  tended  to 
increase  pauperism  and  the  consequent  expenditure  for 
relief.  All  the  needy  were  to  receive  help,  and,  as  almost 
all  laborers  were  needy,  they  were  entitled  to  the  stipend. 
This  situation  was  undermining  the  independence  and 
manhood  of  the  English  workman.  Again,  this  condition 
was  being  exploited  by  employers,  who  refused  to  raise 
wages  because  of  the  State's  supplement  to  labor's  income. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  amount  spent  for  poor 
relief  in  1818  reached  7,870,801  pounds,  or  almost  forty 
million  dollars,  for  a  population  of  only  eleven  million 
people.  In  1832  a  royal  commission  was  appointed  to 


448  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

investigate  the  matter  of  state  relief.  It  was  found  that 
a  man  was  often  economically  better  off  when  rated  as  a 
pauper,  than  when  rated  as  an  independent  worker.  In 
1834  a  new  Poor  Law  Act  was  passed.  It  provided  for  a 
central  government  board  and  inspectors  to  examine  th" 
work  of  the  local  authorities.  No  state  relief  was  to  be 
given  to  the  destitute,  if  able-bodied.  They  must  seek 
the  work-house  to  be  built  by  the  union  of  parishes.  The 
cessation  of  public  outdoor  relief  was  marked  by  a  great 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  pauperism.  The  work-house 
now  became  the  only  institution  of  public  charity.  Its 
deadening  character  and  maladministration  have  been 
criticized  by  many  reports  and  pictured  in  many  works  of 
fiction.  Its  counterpart,  the  American  almshouse,  will  be 
discussed  in  a  later  section. 

By  indoor  relief  is  meant  the  institutional  care  of  the 
poor  supported  in  almshouses.  Outdoor  relief  is  the  caring 
for  this  same  dependent  group  in  their  own 
indoor  and  homes  by  gifts  of  money,  provisions,  or  other 
relief:*  necessaries.  Indoor  relief  is  a  recognized  func- 
Thedif-  tion  of  the  modern  State,  for  otherwise  indi- 

jerence. 

viduals  might  die  upon  the  streets.  Outdoor 
relief,  however,  as  a  state  function,  is  still  a  matter  of 
debate.  The  very  helpless  should  be  placed  in  institu- 
tions, but  the  care  of  those  in  slight  need  had,  perhaps, 
best  be  left  to  private  and  individual  charity.  We  have 
seen  the  history  of  public  outdoor  relief  in  England  and 
know  why  it  was  stopped.  In  America  there  has  been  no 
consistent  national  policy.  Public  outdoor  relief  may 
exist  in  one  community  and  be  absent  in  another.  Most 
of  our  large  cities,  like  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  have 
abandoned  this  policy.  When  it  was  abandoned  in 


The  Organization  of  Charity 


449 


Brooklyn,  it  was  surprising  to  note  how  the  appeals  to 
private  charitable  organizations  failed  to  show  the  increase 
that  had  been  expected.  The  inference  drawn  from  this 
fact  is  that  much  of  the  former  public  outdoor  relief  had 
not  been  needed,  or  had  been  unwisely  distributed. 


THE  BREAD  LINE  AT  THE  BOWERY  MISSION 

There  are  arguments  both  for  and  against  public  outdoor 
relief.     In  its  favor  may  first  be  mentioned  its  apparent 
economy.     It  seems  unnecessary  to  send  an  individual,  or 
his  family,  to  the  poor-house  when  a  slight  finan- 
cial aid  will  permit  living  at  home.   Again,  since   ^fe 
the  disability  of  the  bread  winner  may  be  only 
temporary,  outdoor  relief  often  preserves  the  unity  of  the 
family.    This  system  is  also  more  flexible  and  may  be  varied 

DD 


450  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

according  to  the  needs  of  the  situation.  Much  of  the  ap- 
parent economy,  however,  of  public  outdoor  relief  has  not 
been  a  reality.  English  experience  has  shown  how,  like  a 
contagion,  the  acceptance  of  relief  may  spread  throughout  a 
community.  Again,  giving  to  the  poor  requires  great  dis- 
crimination and  an  experience  in  social  work  not  usually 
found  in  public  officials.  In  many  of  our  cities  political 
corruption  has  vitiated  its  administration.  The  probability 
and  amount  of  public  outdoor  relief  has  been  affected  by 
the  size  of  the  pauper  vote. 

A  number  of  German  communities  have  handled  the 

administration  of  public  outdoor  relief  in  a  characteristic 

manner.    The  best  known  plan  is  the  Elberfeld 

Germany  — 

system.    This  is  based  upon  the  unpaid  personal 


services  of  citizens  acting  in  systematic  coopera- 
tion with  each  other  and  under  a  salaried  superintendent. 
There  is  a  thorough  examination  of  each  individual 
dependent,  a  careful  guardianship  of  him  during  his  period 
of  dependency,  and  a  consistent  effort  to  help  him  regain 
his  economic  independence.  Four  cases  are  usually 
assigned  to  each  citizen  almoner,  who  therefore  knows 
thoroughly  the  needs  of  each  dependent  family.  He  is 
empowered  to  give  relief  according  to  a  graduated  scale 
prescribed  by  law. 

Modern   organized   charity   is   the   twentieth   century 

development  of  what  was  known  in  earlier  times  as  alms- 

giving.    It  differs  from  its  early  form  as  much 

Modern  _ 

point  of  as  the  modern  locomotive  differs  from  the 
Character.  Prairie  schooner.  The  scientific  spirit  has 
brought  about  as  great  a  transformation  in 
the  methods  of  charity  as  in  the  methods  of  transporta- 
tion. Poverty  is  no  longer  regarded  as  necessary  and 


The  Organization  of  Charity  451 

saintly.  It  is  viewed  as  a  social  disease  resulting  either 
from  a  faulty  social  and  economic  environment  or  from 
individual  delinquencies.  The  aim  of  organized  charity  is 
no  longer  the  mere  giving  of  alms  to  relieve  an  immediate 
distress  which  may  shortly  recur.  The  causes  of  poverty 
are  investigated  in  the  hope  that  many  of  them  may  be 
removed.  A  list  of  these  causes  has  already  been  revealed 
in  the  previous  chapter. 

On  the  physical  side,  the  productivity  of  the  natural 
environment  is  being  increased  and  such  phenomena  as 
droughts  and  famines  are  becoming  matters  of  The  trend 
scientific  prevention.  Maladjustments  in  the  #**&**' 
economic  environment  are  being  gradually  eliminated,  and 
experts  in  industrial  management  are  attacking  the 
problem  of  unemployment.  Unfortunately,  however, 
wages  inadequate  for  efficient  living  still  stalk,  like  gaunt 
spectres,  a  land  of  fabulous  riches.  The  social  environ- 
ment must  also  be  remodeled.  Unsanitary  housing  con- 
ditions, the  congestion  of  immigrants,  and  the  slums  of 
our  cities  must  disappear  from  the  society  of  to-morrow. 
Defects  in  our  governmental  and  educational  systems 
must  also  be  remedied.  The  feeble-minded  and  inherently 
degenerate  must  be  so  segregated  that  they  cease  to  propa- 
gate their  kind.  Individual  and  social  ideals  of  health 
and  efficiency  must  be  raised  to  a  higher  level  in  order 
that  shiftlessness  and  indolence  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  All  this  will  not  be  accomplished  by  any 
sudden  or  quick  reform,  but  only  by  the  long,  slow  process 
of  social  evolution  guided  in  a  progressive  manner  by 
human  intelligence.  But  while  these  are  our  ideals  for  the 
future  of  society,  we  must  not  neglect  the  practical  problems 
of  distress  which  confront  all  civilized  societies  to-day. 


452  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  Almshouse. — The  poor-house  is  the  fundamental 
institution  in  American  relief.  It  cares  for  the  destitute 
General  not  otherwise  provided  for,  and  has  been  the 
character.  g'eve  through  which  all  forms  of  social  derelicts, 
except  the  duly  convicted  criminal,  have  passed.  The 
almshouse  often  contains  the  insane,  the  epileptic,  the 
feeble-minded,  the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  crippled,  the  sick, 
and  those  destitute  of  friends.  Here  mingle  old  folks  and 
children,  men  and  women,  the  honest  and  the  dishonest. 
The  general  characteristic  of  the  almshouse  is  therefore 
the  heterogeneous  character  of  its  unclassified  and  unsegre- 
gated  inmates. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  almshouse,  as  it  exists  in 
many  communities,  is  the  transient  nature  of  the  inmates 
special  who  are  admitted  and  dismissed  practically  at 
their  own  option.  The  drunkard  between  sprees 
and  the  tramp  between  seasons  have  found  shelter  within 
its  walls.  A  general  exodus  of  the  able-bodied  from  the 
almshouse  takes  place  in  spring,  but  many  return  with  the 
advent  of  cold  weather.  Since  little  work  is  done,  except 
small  jobs  about  the  building,  the  very  group  which  should 
be  taught  habits  of  steady  labor  is  given  an  excellent 
training  in  idleness.  The  institutional  life  is  deadening  to 
that  very  initiative  which  it  should  seek  to  kindle.  The 
administration  of  the  building  has  often  been  inefficient, 
because  the  remuneration  of  the  superintendent  is  not 
always  sufficient  to  attract  an  able  man.  As  official 
requisites,  affiliations  with  the  political  party  in  power  are 
usually  more  important  than  executive  ability,  or  a  knowl- 
edge of  social  problems  and  of  scientific  methods  of  charity. 
It  was  formerly  common  to  pay  no  stated  salary  to  the 
superintendent,  but  to  allow  him  the  proceeds  from  the 


The  Organization  of  Charity  453 

attached  farm.  This  abominable  practice  led  to  innumer- 
able abuses  and  to  the  exploitation  of  the  inmates.  The 
assistants  were  also  frequently  incapable,  and  the  especially 
necessary  medical  service  was  often  of  the  lowest  standard. 
If  any  system  of  inspection  was  required,  it  was  admin- 
istered in  a  most  perfunctory,  if  not  corrupt,  fashion. 

The  very  nature  of  these  evils  cries  out  for  reform.  The 
almshouse  should  not  be  the  " dumping"  ground  for  all  the 
destitute  classes  of  society.  It  should  be  used  Needed 
merely  as  the  temporary  clearing  house  for  vari-  reforms- 
ous  groups  of  defectives  to  be  assigned  later  to  special 
institutions.  The  feeble-minded  should  be  put  under  the 
permanent  custody  of  a  special  institution;  the  blind, 
especially  the  young,  should  be  sent  to  their  own  schools; 
and  the  tubercular  inmates  should  be  placed  in  sanitariums 
or  in  special  hospital  wards.  The  building  of  separate  insti- 
tutions requires  great  expenditures  of  public  funds,  but  it 
is  imperatively  needed.  Children  should  never  be  per- 
mitted to  grow  up  in  this  environment,  and  old  folks,  like- 
wise, are  deserving  of  better  treatment.  Again,  the  alms- 
house  should  not  be  so  easy  of  access  and  of  departure. 
Paupers  should  be  regarded  as  socially  diseased  and  an 
attempt  made  to  reestablish  in  them  a  normal  life  and  pur- 
pose. In  comparatively  few  states  are  they  deprived  of 
the  right  to  vote,  with  the  result  that  at  elections  they  go 
forth  to  swell  the  majority  of  the  political  organization  in 
power.  Women  frequently  use  the  almshouse  as  a  mater- 
nity hospital,  in  which  are  born  the  illegitimate  and  feeble- 
minded. 

In  order  to  establish  the  almshouse  on  a  scientific  basis, 
careful  records  of  admission  and  discharge  should  be  kept 
so  that  each  case  may  be  studied  individually.  At  present, 


454  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

few  accounts  are  filed  except  those  dealing  with  financial 
expenditures.  The  almshouse,  which  should  provide  a  great 
The  amount  of  valuable  clinical  material,  has  offered 

remedies.  \{^\\Q  information  of  worth  for  the  student  of 
social  conditions.  Work  of  sound  economic  or  educational 
value  should  be  afforded  those  inmates  that  are  physically 
or  mentally  capable  of  such  labor.  The  administration 
must  also  be  reformed  through  efficient  governmental  super- 
vision. Private  institutions,  which  assume  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  lives  of  inmates  and  which  appeal  to  the 
public  for  support,  should  not  be  exempt  from  government 
inspection.  Salaries  should  be  adequate  and  competent 
officials  appointed.  An  efficient  corps  of  medical  and  social 
workers  should  be  added  according  to  the  size  and  needs 
of  the  institution.  The  best  system  of  inspection  seems  to 
be  that  of  a  commission  of  responsible  persons  appointed 
by  the  governor,  without  pay,  but  employing  a  salaried 
secretary  and  a  body  of  paid  inspectors.  A  separate  sal- 
aried board  should  be  charged  with  the  centralized  business 
administration  of  the  various  state  institutions,  whose 
activities  must  be  correlated. 

Outdoor  and  Private  Relief. — In  general  it  would 
seem  that  institutional,  or  indoor  relief,  should  be  under- 
The  taken  by  the  State.  Many  private  and  religious 

church.  associations,  however,  maintain  their  own  homes, 
asylums,  and  other  charitable  institutions.  Many  also 
receive  large  state  appropriations,  although  in  most  cases 
there  is  a  legal  proviso  that  the  institutions  so  subsidized 
must  be  of  non-sectarian  character.  Outdoor  relief,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  been  left  for  the  most  part  to  private 
charitable  associations.  Many  of  these  agencies  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor  in  their  own  homes  are  administered  in 


The  Organization  of  Charity  455 

connection  with  the  activities  of  various  church  organiza- 
tions. There  are  in  America  three  main  divisions — the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Societies  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  United  Hebrew  Charities,  and  the  various 
societies  of  the  different  Protestant  sects.  There  are  also 
other  independent  religious  organizations  for  philanthropic 
work,  some  of  which  are  most  estimable.  It  is  nevertheless 
true  that  sometimes  even  the  most  sincere  church  charity 
is  given  in  a  haphazard  fashion.  Professional  beggars  are 
known  to  have  taken  advantage  deliberately  of  numerous 
church  societies,  which  make  but  little  investigation  of  the 
ultimate  effects  of  their  donations.  Furthermore,  different 
sects  should  cooperate,  rather  than  discriminate,  in  their 
charitable  activities.  The  unfortunate  man  who  meets 
with  an  accident  upon  the  street  is  driven  to  the  nearest 
hospital,  Jewish  or  Gentile,  and  no  questions  are  asked' 
regarding  his  creed.  More  of  the  same  spirit  in  charity 
work  is  needed.  At  present,  however,  it  would  seem  that 
distinct  charity  organizations  based  upon  religious  sects 
have  certain  inherent  advantages.  Each  religious  organi- 
zation understands  better,  and  meets  more  effectively,  the 
needs  of  its  own  group.  It  is  also  natural  for  dependents 
to  seek  help  first  from  members  of  their  own  religious  sect. 
The  most  direct  aim  of  medical  charities  is  the  relief  or 
the  physical  distress  of  the  poor.  The  gain  is  social  as 
well  as  individual,  for  the  community  is  thereby  Medical 
spared  the  expense  involved  in  the  care  of  an  chanties- 
otherwise  dependent  member  of  society.  Missionaries 
have  found  that  medical  assistance  is  the  quickest  way  to 
reach  the  hearts  and  minds  of  those  among  whom  they 
work.  Social  workers  in  our.  own  slums  have  found  this 
fact  to  be  equally  true.  Many  of  our  large  city  hospitals 


456  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

have  a  social  service  department,  whereby  the  social  work- 
ers supplement  the  work  of  the  surgeon  and  nurse  by  follow- 
ing up  the  cases  discharged  from  the  hospital  as  cured. 
Medical  charity  is  also  a  means  of  diffusing  information 
regarding  health,  hygiene,  and  sanitation.  Organized 
medical  charity  protects  the  public  health.  A  municipal 
hospital  is  primarily  designed  to  care  for  contagious  dis- 
eases, and  similarly  adequate  provision  should  be  made  for 
tubercular  patients.  Maternity  hospitals  or  wards  have 
been  established  for  the  poor,  while  orthopedic  hospitals 
correct  the  deformities  of  growing  children.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible for  the  poor  to  have  their  eyes  examined  free  and  thus 
to  correct  faulty  vision.  Finally,  there  are  free  dis- 
pensaries for  the  dressing  of  wounds  and  for  the  care  of 
other  physical  ills,  as  well  as  free  wards  for  undergoing 
surgical  operations  and  for  treatment  during  serious  illness. 
Although  medical  charities  have  been  taken  advantage  of 
by  many  individuals  who  are  able  to  pay  for  medical  aid, 
their  benefits  far  outweigh  any  well-founded  objections 
charged  against  them. 

Private   charitable   associations   are   especially   needed 

when   experiments   are    to   be    tried   and   pioneer   work 

attempted.     Much  of  the  charitable  work  that 

Private 

associa-  is  now  done  by  government  institutions,  was 
Nature.  ^rst  undertaken  by  a  group  of  individuals  who 
proved,  by  practical  experimentation,  what  could 
be  done  along  certain  lines.  All  kinds  of  philanthropic  work 
are  carried  on  by  private  associations.  There  are  homes  for 
orphans,  for  crippled  children,  and  for  the  aged,  founded 
by  benevolent  individuals.  There  are  also  private  asylums 
for  certain  classes  of  defectives  for  whom  the  State  has 
made  no  adequate  provision.  There  are  an  infinite 


The  Organization  of  Charity  457 

number  of  large  and  small  associations  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor  in  their  own  homes.  Free  employment  bureaus, 
housing  commissions,  and  settlement  houses  in  poverty- 
striken  quarters  have  been  founded  by  private  philanthropy. 
All  honor  should  be  accorded  such  public-spirited  citizens 
and  the  spirit  of  altruism  which  impelled  them.  Such 
institutions  represent  one  of  the  noblest  characteristics  of 
modern  civilization. 

Private  charities,  however,  have  their  own  peculiar 
dangers.  They  are  so  easily  formed  that  there  is  a  con- 
stant temptation  to  multiply  them.  It  there-  Their 
fore  happens  that  some  fields  are  overcrowded,  dangers- 
while  others  are  neglected.  Again,  the  funds  of  a  small 
association  are  inadequate  to  carry  on  the  work  proposed, 
but  would  be  effective  for  a  stronger  organization  doing 
similar  work.  Among  these  numerous  good  societies,  it  is 
easy  also  for  fraudulent  ones  to  flourish  and  to  collect 
money  for  supposedly  benevolent  purposes.  Again,  money 
may  be  spent  sincerely,  but  foolishly,  according  to  the 
eccentricity  of  the  donor.  Public-spirited  individuals,  who 
wish  to  make  bequests,  would  do  well  to  consult  some 
official  in  the  local  society  for  organized  charity.  In  this 
manner  a  good  perspective  of  the  field  would  be  obtained, 
as  well  as  expert  advice  from  a  professionally  trained 
social  worker. 

Charity   organization  societies — or  similar  associations 
known  by  slightly  different  names — exist  in  most  of  the 
large  cities  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United    Charity 
States.     The  pioneer  American  organization  in   J^"2*" 
this  field  is  the  Society  for  Organizing  Charity,    societies: 
established  in    1877,    in    the   city  of  Buffalo. 
Its    purpose    may    be    regarded    as    that    of    a    central 


458  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

clearing  house  for  all  forms  of  outdoor  relief.  Its  aim  is 
not  so  much  to  furnish  material  aid  to  the  destitute  as  to 
help  restore  them  to  economic  independence.  The  causes 
of  poverty  are  studied  in  order  that  conditions  in  the 
environment  may  be  improved.  Cases  requiring  imme- 
diate need  are  referred  to  a  particular  charity  to  care  for 
them.  Thus,  the  central  organization  acts  as  a  directive 
agency  rather  than  as  a  means  of  distribution  of  material 
help.  If  an  individual  is  out  of  work,  employment  is 
sought  at  one  of  the  employment  agencies;  if  sick  or 
diseased,  admission  is  secured  to  a  free  ward  in  a  hospital 
or  in  a  special  asylum.  If  a  family  seems  in  need  of  help, 
the  society  sends  a  trained  worker  to  make  a  careful  study 
of  the  case,  which  is  duly  recorded  in  a  card  index  system. 
Recommendations  are  made  to  benevolent  societies  likely 
to  give  aid,  or  the  aid  of  the  former  employer,  of  relatives, 
and  of  friends  is  solicited  in  order  to  help  the  unfortunate 
to  regain  his  economic  independence. 

The  Society  for  Organizing  Charity  has  been  criticized 

because  so  small  a  proportion  of  its  funds  is  spent  for 

actual   relief   and   so   large    a   proportion   for 

Justification.  . 

red  tape.  Again,  some  object  to  its  alleged 
sense  of  superiority  which  seeks  to  direct  other  societies. 
Answers  to  these  objections  are  unnecessary.  In  the  matter 
of  real  social  service  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  an 
assumption  of  superiority.  The  need  of  organization  and 
investigation  is  so  great  as  to  make  imperative  a  central 
society  for  that  particular  purpose.  Its  case  records  are  open 
to  other  charity  societies  which  seek  to  give  aid,  but  which 
have  neither  the  time  nor  ability  for  investigation.  The 
so-called  "red  tape"  prevents  the  success  of  impostors. 
Hence,  all  individuals  or  private  associations  for  the  dis- 


The  Organization  of  Charity  459 

pensing  of  charity  will  do  well  to  seek  this  central  society 
for  information  as  to  the  relative  needs  of  their  various 
applicants.  The  Society  for  Organizing  Charity  seeks  also 
to  prevent  overlapping  and  waste  of  energy.  If  all  the 
charities  of  a  city  would  report  to  this  one  central  clearing 
house  all  that  they  are  doing,  they  could  easily  learn  from 
how  many  sources  any  given  applicant  is  receiving  help. 
Beggars  upon  the  street  should  be  referred  to  this  society, 
and  solicitors  for  funds  should  produce  its  written  endorse- 
ment before  receiving  favorable  consideration. 

The  first  principle  of  relief  would  seem  to  be  the  securing 
of  adequate  knowledge  before  giving  aid  to  the  applicant. 
Is  the  family  in  actual  need,  or  is  it  seeking  to  Principles 
live  as  a  parasite  upon  the  community?  What  ' 
kind  of  aid  and  what  amount  is  needed?  The  habit  of 
indiscriminate  almsgiving  on  the  street  is  a  most  pernicious 
practice.  Many  beggars  are  impostors,  while  others  should 
be  placed  in  special  institutions  for  defectives.  It  is  wise 
to  remember  that  indiscriminate  help  may  eventually  injure, 
rather  than  aid,  the  recipient.  In  the  second  place,  the 
aim  of  relief  should  be  to  secure  as  far  as  possible  the  eco- 
nomic independence  of  the  needy.  Thus,  the  remote  cause 
of  poverty  must  be  removed,  not  merely  the  immediate  dis- 
tress. The  terms ' '  worthy  and  unworthy  •' '  should  be  replaced 
by  "needy  and  not  needy."  No  relief  should  be  given  to 
those  who  are  capable  of  supporting  themselves.  In  some 
cases  discipline  of  the  applicant  is  needed  rather  than  any 
relief.  Legal  measures  must  also  be  taken  in  such  cases  as 
that  of  the  husband  who  deliberately  deserts  his  wife  and 
children.  A  third  principle  of  relief  is  to  teach  the  helpless 
how  to  help  themselves,  rather  than  actually  to  help  them  in 
the  most  direct  manner.  A  fourth  principle  of  scientific 


460  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

relief  is  the  careful  supervision  of  the  recipient  of  charity. 
This  is  well  done  by  what  is  known  as  "friendly  visiting," 
a  principle  to  which  separate  consideration  will  be  given. 
In  conclusion,  let  it  be  stated  that  scientific  charity  does 
not  seek  to  do  less  but  more  for  the  poor.  It  might 
seem,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  organized  relief  tends 
to  suppress  the  impulse  of  generosity.  Nothing,  however, 
could  be  farther  from  the  truth;  for  scientific  charity 
simply  seeks  to  make  relief  more  effective  by  a  better 
direction  of  its  usefulness.  Thus  there  arises  a  science  of 
philanthropy  which  emphasizes  service  rather  than  mere 
alms-giving. 

In  order  to  investigate  the  cases,  and  to  supervise  the 
work  of  organized  charity,  a  corps  of  social  workers  is 
necessary.     These  are  known  as  "  friendly  vis- 
Friendly        itors."     They  do  more  than  merely  supply  food 

visiting  in 

the  family  and  clothing  to  the  needy.  Their  aim  is  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  family  life  and  the  restora- 
tion of  normal  standards  of  health,  efficiency,  and  morality. 
This  new  profession  of  social  service  requires  infinite  tact, 
sound  judgment,  common  sense,  an  attractive  personality, 
and  a  considerable  knowledge  in  a  particular  field.  A 
knowledge  of  local  means  of  medical  relief,  of  laws  of  land- 
lord and  tenant,  of  hygiene  and  food  values  is  essential  to 
the  success  of  such  work.  The  friendly  visitor  must 
become  personally  acquainted  with  the  individuals  in  the 
family  and  must  not  pose  as  the  agent  of  a  charity  organiza- 
tion. Personal  supervision  of  the  dependent  and  his 
family  has  been  the  secret  of  success  of  the  Elberfeld  System. 
Friendly  visiting  has  been  an  essential  part  of  the  work 
of  inmates  of  settlement  houses  established  in  the  slum 
districts  of  various  cities.  Hull  House  in  Chicago,  for 


The  Organization  of  Charity  461 

example,  has  been  a  center  of  ennobling  influences  radiat- 
ing throughout  a  very  dark  section  of  the  city.  Open 
house  is  maintained  and  various  forms  of  recrea-  social  set- 
tion  and  games  appeal  to  the  young  and  old.  tiements- 
The  spirit  is  fraternal  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  section 
are  not  dealt  with  in  a  patronizing  manner.  Higher  ideals 
of  morality,  of  family  life,  of  industrial  efficiency,  and  of 
personal  health  and  cleanliness  are  continually  upheld. 
Advice  is  not  superimposed,  but  given  incidentally  wher- 
ever possible.  Such  a  social  settlement  ministers  to  a  much 
larger  group  than  paupers  and  dependents;  for  many  inde- 
pendent and  self-respecting  people  of  the  poorer  class  are 
helped  by  such  means  to  higher  standards  of  living.  The 
social  settlement  not  only  acts  as  an  antidote  to  the  dangers 
of  the  big  city,  but  also  offsets  the  baneful  influence  of  the 
streets.  Police  magistrates  and  the  juvenile  courts  have 
recognized  the  value  to  the  delinquent  child  of  such  insti- 
tutions. 

In  conclusion,  one  word  may  be  said  concerning  the  care 
of  dependent  children.     No  child  should  be  permitted  to 
remain  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  poor-house.    Care 
Unfortunately  many  orphanages  are  but  little    dependent 

-,...,  ,       children. 

better;  for  the  institutional  atmosphere  of  such 
places  is  deadening  to  the  growing  child.  The  cottage 
system,  consisting  of  a  number  of  small  houses  each  under 
a  house  mother,  is  immeasureably  superior  to  the  insti- 
tutional plan.  The  securing  of  homes  in  real  families  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  plan,  although  it  requires  great  care 
in  selection.  Since  it  is  fairly  easy  to  secure  adoption, 
some  method  of  visitation  should  be  maintained  afterward. 
The  child  of  the  depraved  home  presents  a  more  complex 
problem  than  the  orphan.  Where  great  cruelty  is  prac- 


462  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ticed,  or  where  the  parents  are  immoral  or  habitually 
intoxicated,  the  courts  may  take  the  child  out  of  the  home 
and  place  it  elsewhere.  This  is  only  done  in  extreme  cases, 
because  one  important  principle  of  relief  is  to  keep  the  fam- 
ily intact  and  the  child  under  the  influence  of  its  mother. 
For  that  reason,  the  state  of  Illinois  inaugurated  the  system 
of  pensioning  widows  with  children.  Under  such  a  system, 
the  poverty-stricken  mother  is  not  compelled  to  part  with 
her  child  whose  support  might  otherwise  have  been  prob- 
lematical. The  opponents  of  this  law  maintain  that  it 
cannot  be  administered  without  abuses.  Day  nurseries 
have  been  established  in  some  districts,  where  poverty 
compels  mothers  to  work  for  long  hours  in  factory,  shop, 
or  domestic  service.  While  this  plan  is  a  dangerous  invita- 
tion to  many  to  shift  the  care  of  their  children  from  the 
home  to  the  nursery,  the  only  other  alternatives  are  to 
confine  the  little  ones  in  the  close  rooms  of  the  tenement 
or  to  allow  them  to  roam  the  neighboring  streets  and  alleys. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1  Tell  of  the  effects  of  the  free  distribution  of  grain  in  Rome. 

2  What  was  the  medieval  attitude  toward  charity? 

3.  Explain  the  effects  of  the  English  Poor  Law. 

4.  Give  the  arguments  for  and  against  public  outdoor  relief  in 
America. 

5.  What  has  been  its  history  in  this  country? 

6.  Why  do  you  think  it  has  succeeded  in  some  German  cities? 

7.  Describe  the  Elberfeld  system. 

8.  How  does  the  modern  point  of  view  regarding  poverty  and 
charity  compare  with  the  older? 

9.  What  is  the  outlook  for  the  future? 

10.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  almshouse? 

11.  What  reforms  can  you  suggest? 

12.  Discuss  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  church  charities. 


The  Organization  of  Charity  463 

13.  What  charitable  associations  have  you  ever  seen  at  work? 

14.  Justify  medical  charities  as  a  community  function 

15.  What  are  some  dangers  of  numerous  private  charitable  associ- 
ations? 

1 6.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society? 

17.  Show  its  relation  to  other  charitable  organizations. 

18.  Why  is  the  work  of  a  "friendly  visitor"  difficult? 

19.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  investigate  cases  and  why  does  the 
dependent  family  need  supervision? 

20.  When  is  it  necessary  to  remove  children  from  their  homes? 
Is  this  a  usual  policy? 

21.  What  should  be  your  attitude  toward  beggars  upon  the  street? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  charitable  work  of  the  medieval  monks. 

2.  The  charity  work  of  your  church  or  club. 

3.  The  work  of  your  nearest  Society  for  Organizing  Charity. 

4.  Outdoor  relief  in  your  community. 

5.  The  work  of  Hull  House  or  some  other  social  center. 

6.  The  work  of  some  orphanage.     (A  personal  visit  should  follow 
the  study  of  the  institution's  published  report.) 

7.  How  a  group  of  students  might  best  cooperate  in  some  form  of 
valuable  social  work. 

8.  Local  laws  upon  begging  and  their  enforcement. 

9.  Principles  of  scientific  relief. 

10.  The  work  of  Herbert  Hoover  during  the  World  War. 

REFERENCES 

ADDAMS,  J.     Twenty  Years  at  Hull  House. 

DEVINE,  E.  T.    Principles  of  Relief. 

DEVINE,  E.  T.     The  Family  and  Social  Work. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Dependents,  Defectives  and  Delinquents.    Part  II. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Modern  Methods  of  Charity. 

MANGOLD,  G.  B.    Child  Problems.    Book  V. 

RICHMOND,  M.  E.    Friendly  Visiting. 

SMITH,  S.  G.    Social  Pathology. 

WARNER,  A.  G.    American  Charities. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  CRIME 

I.  Nature  of  crime 

1.  Its  character: 

a.  In  early  days 

b.  In  modern  times 

2.  Crime  and  the  law: 

a.  Early  development 

b.  Changing  social  standards 

3.  Extent  of  crime 

4.  Cost  of  crime 

5.  Alleged  increase 
II.  Causes  of  crime 

1.  Environmental: 

a.  Physical  environment 

b.  Economic  environment 

c.  Social  environment : 

(1)  Density  of  population 

(2)  Family  life  and  nationality 

(3)  Changing  social  conditions 

d.  Defects  in  government 

e.  Defects  in  education 

2.  Individual: 

a.  Hereditary  traits 

b.  Acquired  traits 

c.  Age  and  sex 

3.  Preventive  measures 

III.  Classification  of  crimes  and  criminals 

1.  Classes  of  crimes 

2.  Classes  of  criminals 

3.  An  old  theory 

464 


The  Problem  of  Crime  465 

Nature  of  Crime. — The  advance  of  civilization  has 
been  marked  by  greater  security  of  life  and  property.  The 
function  of  the  State  in  whatever  form  it  existed  Itg 
was  to  protect  the  members  of  the  group,  not  character: 
only  from  outside  invasion,  but  also  from 
unsocial  individuals  within.  The  growth  of  association 
branded  as  criminals  those  who  refused  to  cooperate  in  pre- 
serving the  social  order.  The  " King's  Peace"  was  the 
first  expression  of  the  growing  police  power  of  the  State. 
Early  conditions,  in  comparison  with  modern,  presented 
a  greater  amount  of  turmoil  and  confusion.  In  ancient 
Rome,  gangs  of  cutthroats  and  freed  gladiators  were 
hired  for  the  work  of  assassination.  The  cities  of  medieval 
and  modern  Europe  were  notoriously  unsafe.  The  carry- 
ing of  rapiers  became  a  social  custom  founded  upon  neces- 
sity. As  late  as  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  the  narrow, 
unlighted  streets  of  London  were  harassed  by  foot-pads 
and  " gentlemen"  who  played  "pranks"  upon  their  vic- 
tims. Outlaws,  like  the  fabled  Robin  Hood,  were  so 
numerous  in  the  rural  districts  as  to  make  travelling  unsafe. 
Not  only  were  piracy  and  smuggling  common,  but  the 
government  itself  resorted  to  the  press  gang  in  order  to 
recruit  naval  enlistments. 

Modern  society  has  been  made  much  safer  by  the  repres- 
sion of  such  disorders,  so  that  in  the  course  of  centuries 
there  has  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  number   Modern 
of  brutal  and  serious  crimes.     While  numerous   **meSm 
individual  cases  of  cruel  crime  still  exist,  they  are  not  nearly 
so  common  and  flagrant  in  character.     Modern  society, 
however,  has  a  new  type  of  unsocial  individual  in  its  midst, 
more   polished  and  less  brutal,   but  equally  dangerous. 
Professor  Ross  well  describes  him  in  "Sin  and  Society." 
EE 


466  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  complexity  and  organization  of  twentieth  century 
society  permits  him  to  work  at  long  range  and  with  less 
fear  of  detection.  Instead  of  running  a  dagger  through 
his  victim,  the  modern  criminal  may  supply  impure  milk, 
or  adulterated  food,  with  the  same  deadly  result.  Or, 
rather  than  loot  a  house  and  carry  off  the  goods,  he  may 
wreck  financial  undertakings  and  rob  innocent  stock- 
holders. Although  the  old  brutal  crimes  are  therefore 
not  so  numerous,  a  new  type  of  refined  criminal  has  sprung 
into  existence.  Hence  the  development  of  commerce  and 
industry  has  made  necessary  the  enactment  of  new  criminal 
laws. 

The  simplest  definition  of  crime  is  that  of  violation  of  the 

law.     Crimes  are  wrongful  acts  against  society,  or  against 

individuals,  punishable  by  legal  penalty.     At 

Crime  and  .  .  11*1 

the  law:        one  time,   crime  was  regarded   simply  as  an 


offense  against  the  individual  affected.  The 
aggrieved  man  or  his  family  sought  vengeance 
against  the  offender  without  the  intervention  of  the  group 
as  a  whole.  Gradually,  however,  the  idea  grew  up  that 
crimes  were  offenses  not  only  against  individuals,  but  also 
against  society.  The  newly  established  social  order  was 
regarded  as  being  threatened  by  such  unsocial  individuals. 
Therefore,  the  political  unit,  whether  in  the  form  of  the 
patriarchal  family,  the  tribe,  the  feudal  group,  or  the  nation 
was  forced  to  meet  its  own  problem  of  social  control.  The 
group,  not  the  individual,  thus  came  to  punish  crime.  To 
this  day,  however,  torts  require  the  initial  action  of  the 
individual,  rather  than  the  State,  for  their  redress.  In 
order  to  define  and  punish  crime  it  was  found  necessary 
to  formulate  a  body  of  law,  written  or  unwritten,  explain- 
ing what  should  constitute  deviations  from  the  normal 


The  Problem  of  Crime  467 

standard  of  conduct.  A  good  idea  of  the  civilization  of  a 
people,  or  of  an  age,  may  be  obtained  from  its  code  of  laws. 
A  comparison  of  the  Twelve  Tables  of  early  Rome  with  the 
elaborate  Code  of  Justinian  illustrates  one  phase  of  the 
social  progress  attained  during  the  intervening  period. 

The  legal  code  reflects  not  only  the  degree,  but  also  the 
type,  of  civilization.  Each  society  punishes  most  severely 
those  crimes  which  threaten  its  particular  type  , 

J*       Changing 

of  social   organization.     In   a   theocracy  bias-   social 

.  standards. 

phemy,  and  in  an  absolute  monarchy,  Use  majeste 
are  the  great  crimes  against  the  State.  In  an  industrial 
society  new  crimes,  like  the  falsification  of  records  and  the 
forging  of  checks,  must  be  defined  in  the  legal  code.  As 
civilization  has  advanced,  the  normal  standard  of  conduct 
has  risen.  Crime  will  always  be  present  in  society  because 
there  will  always  be  those  who  fail  to  meet  the  constantly 
rising  standards  of  conduct.  Like  poverty,  crime  is  some- 
what relative  in  character.  Laws,  as  the  legal  expression 
of  the  group  standards  of  morality,  must  reflect  the  popular 
will.  Statute  books  must  therefore  be  kept  abreast  of  the 
changing  social  conscience.  It  is  unfortunate  to  have 
obsolete  laws  upon  the  statute  books,  and  so-called  blue 
laws  should  either  be  enforced  or  repealed.  Again,  new 
laws  should  be  passed  to  express  new  social  standards  of 
public  opinion.  Otherwise,  individuals  may  be  held 
morally  guilty  by  the  community,  but  their  actions  may 
be  entirely  within  the  law.  The  social  conscience  may  see 
little  difference  between  unregulated  child  labor  and  slav- 
ery, or  between  certain  dangerous  trades  and  murder.  But 
this  subjective  estimate  of  individual  action  is  not  sufficient. 
Public  opinion  must  express  itself  in  laws,  and,  to  secure 
the  enforcement  of  these  laws,  the  social  conscience  must 


468  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

be  educated  to  the  new  standard.  This  process  of  educa- 
tion should  precede  the  legal  enactments  which,  otherwise, 
will  remain  unenforced.  Prohibition,  for  example,  will 
not  become  truly  effective  until  it  reflects  everywhere  a 
new  standard  of  social  morality. 

The  extent  of  crime  is  difficult  to  determine,  for  the 
number  of  prisoners  convicted  and  sentenced  represents 
Extent  of  but  a  fraction  of  the  total  number  of  criminals. 

Many  are  not  even  apprehended,  while  others 
are  acquitted  because  of  a  lack  of  convincing  evidence. 
Our  estimates  can  be  based  only  upon  the  number  of  sen- 
tences rendered,  or  upon  the  number  of  persons  actually 
in  confinement  in  a  given  year.  In  the  United  States, 
before  the  War,  the  number  of  annual  commitments 
approximated  the  half  million  mark.  The  number  of  per- 
sons under  sentence  was  about  a  third  of  that  number.  A 
special  prison  census  reported  for  one  year  a  little  over  two 
thousand  convictions  for  homicide,  while  the  actual  num- 
ber of  such  crimes  committed  was  several  times  that  figure. 
Indeed,  the  annual  homicide  rate  in  the  United  States  for 
the  opening  years  of  the  twentieth  century  was  between 
six  and  seven  thousand.  England,  on  the  other  hand, 
averaged  between  three  and  four  hundred  such  cases. 

Mr.  Eugene  Smith  estimated  some  years  ago  that  in  the 
United  States  there  were  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
Cost  of  persons  who  made  their  living  wholly  or  partially 

by  committing  crime.  To  maintain  these  crim- 
inals it  cost  the  country  $400,000,000  annually,  while 
another  annual  expenditure  of  $200,000,000  was  necessary 
for  their  trial  and  conviction.  This  total  of  $600,000,000 
was  about  the  equivalent  of  the  annual  sum  spent  at  that 
time  for  public  education  in  the  United  States.  This  esti- 


The  Problem  of  Crime  469 

mate  of  the  cost  of  crime  would  probably  be  conservative 
for  the  present  time. 

The  alleged  increase  in  crime  in  recent  years  is  difficult 
to  determine  because  standards  of  conduct  have  not 
remained  constant.  New  laws  have  been  added,  Alleged 
and  new  offenses  created,  which  did  not  exist  increase- 
previously.  Moreover,  the  number  of  commitments  and 
the  number  of  crimes  are  not  identical.  Again  an  apparent 
increase  of  crime  may  mean  merely  that  the  law  is  being 
more  strictly  enforced.  There  also  exists  a  great  dis- 
crepancy between  the  laws  of  the  different  states.  It 
would  seem,  however,  to  some  writers  that  there  has  been 
an  increase  of  crime  in  the  United  States.  This  assertion 
is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  prison  population  has 
increased  proportionately  more  rapidly  than  the  total 
population.  Other  writers,  however,  take  a  different  view 
of  the  matter.  European  statistics,  before  the  World 
War,  did  not  show  any  decided  increase  of  crime.  If  any- 
thing, a  slight  decrease  was  noted  in  some  countries  of 
continental  Europe.  England,  whose  criminal  procedure 
is  excellent,  showed  a  considerable  decrease  in  the  number 
of  crimes  committed.  With  the  advent  of  the  World  War, 
however,  began  that  spirit  of  recklessness  which  eventually 
resulted  in  a  temporary  spread  of  crime  throughout  the 
whole  civilized  world. 

Causes  of  Crime. — Both  in  number  and  character  the 
causes  of  crime  resemble  those  of  poverty.  The  same  set 
of  circumstances  that  may  make  one  individual 

.     .      ,       m  Environ- 

a  pauper  make  another  a  criminal.    The  causes   mental: 
of  crime  lie  both  in  the  environment  and  in  the  ^^^ 
individual.    On  the  environmental  side,  there 
seems  to  be  a  generally  accepted  opinion  that  crimes 


470  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

against  person  are  more  common  in  southern  countries, 
and  crimes  against  property  are  more  prevalent  in  northern 
lands.  Similarly,  in  the  same  country  crimes  against 
property,  such  as  burglary,  increase  in  winter,  while  those 
against  persons,  like  murder  and  assault,  show  an  increase 
in  spring  and  summer.  Curves  of  the  increase  and  decrease 
of  crime  which  have  been  plotted  graphically  show  this 
variation  according  to  climate  and  season.  Weather  influ- 
ences also  have  a  decided  influence  upon  conduct,  as  all 
individuals  in  charge  of  large  groups  have  noticed.  War- 
dens in  prisons  and  asylums  note  a  decided  difference  in  the 
conduct  of  the  inmates  upon  clear,  crisp,  windy  days  and 
upon  damp  days  with  high  humidity. 

The  economic  causes  of  crime  are  quite  similar  to  those 
of  poverty.  Individuals  react  differently  to  the  same  set  of 
Economic  causes.  Unemployment  may  drive  one  man  to 
environment.  ste^  and  anotner  to  fog  Inadequate  wages 

may  reduce  one  woman  to  a  standard  of  living  below  the 
poverty  line,  while  another  of  weaker  will  may  become  a 
moral  delinquent.  Throughout  this  discussion,  the  student 
should  review  the  economic  causes  of  poverty  and  observe 
how  they  are  applicable  to  crime. 

Conditions  in  large  cities  are  conducive  to  crime,  for 
here  social  ills  and  economic  maladjustments  are  intensified. 
Social  Glaring  contrasts  between  poverty  and  riches 

environment.  are  temptations  to  illicit  gains.  Here  bad  asso- 
ciations are  easily  formed,  for  the  criminal  as  well  as  the 
pauper  group  gravitates  toward  the  city.  Gangs  of  thieves 
make  their  quarters  in  congested  districts,  like  those  de- 
picted in  Dickens'  story  of  Oliver  Twist  and  in  similar  tales 
of  to-day.  After  long  monotonous  hours  of  toil,  immoral 
amusement  places  are  sought  for  relaxation  as  an  escape 


The  Problem  of  Crime  471 

from  crowded  tenement  houses.  The  city  should  therefore 
furnish  wholesome  recreation  centers,  which  may  compete 
with  the  vicious  theatres  and  dance  halls.  Motion  pictures, 
too,  should  be  censored  so  that  wrongful  ideals  may  not  be 
upheld  before  their  audiences.  All  these  conditions  are 
typical  of  the  city,  which  represents  a  great  density  of  popu- 
lation. At  the  other  extreme,  are  isolated,  sparsely  settled 
communities  which  are  also  characterized  by  increased 
criminality.  Note,  for  example,  the  lawlessness  of  frontier 
life.  The  regions  between  these  two  extremes  of  density  of 
population  are  least  subject  to  crime. 

The  family  should  be  the  chief  agent  in  the  socialization 
of  the  individual.  Demoralized  homes,  which  cannot  per- 
form this  function,  furnish  an  undue  proportion  of  criminals. 
Neglected  children  and  those  with  false  social  standards 
seem  inclined  toward  criminal  careers.  Eighty-five  to 
ninety  per  cent  of  delinquent  children  in  reform  schools 
come  from  bad  homes.  On  the  other  hand,  a  healthy 
family  life  is  antagonistic  to  crime.  The  proportion  of 
unmarried  to  married  men  is  also  greater  in  the  prisons 
than  in  the  general  population.  The  criminality  of  the 
negro  is  from  four  to  five  times  as  high  as  that  of  the  whites. 
Again,  children  of  the  foreign  born,  rather  than  the  immi- 
grants themselves,  show  a  greater  proportion  of  criminality. 
The  South  Italian,  however,  is  often  prone  toward  serious 
crimes,  and  the  Irishman  toward  minor  offenses. 

Social  drinking  in  the  form  of  "treating"  was  formerly  a 
bad  social  custom,  and  the  saloon  for  many  a  weak  indi- 
vidual was  the  door  to  the  jail  or  to  the  almshouse.  The 
effect  of  prohibition  upon  the  crime  rate  offers  an  interest- 
ing field  of  investigation.  The  working  out  of  this  great 
social  reform  was  at  first  beset  by  the  abnormal  conditions 


472  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

which  prevailed  in  the  years  following  the  World  War. 
Commitments  for  minor  t  offenses,  however,  such  as  dis- 
orderly conduct,  seemed  to  decrease.  Advocates  of  pro- 
hibition claim  a  considerable  decrease  in  the  population  of 
the  almshouse  and  the  county  jail.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  illegal  sale  of  liquor  breeds  contempt  for  the  law  which 
is  dangerous  to  society,  for  the  moral  attitude  of  the  com- 
munity on  this  question  is  vitally  important.  The  number 
of  serious  crimes  showed  such  an  increase  in  the  period 
immediately  following  the  War  that  attempts  were  made 
to  show  a  causal  relationship  between  crime  and  war,  as 
well  as  between  crime  and  prohibition.  It  has  been  argued 
that  repeated  scenes  of  destruction  and  bloodshed  develop 
a  callousness  to  the  loss  of  life  and  property.  Again 
freedom  from  military  discipline  and  restraint  may  have  a 
decided  reaction  upon  the  morally  weak.  Hence  the 
carrying  of  concealed  weapons  is  vicious  and  dangerous  to 
society.  On  the  other  hand,  the  elaborate  display  of 
wealth  is  a  suggestion  to  crime. 

Defects  in  law  and  government  increase  the  amount  of 
crime.  If  the  police  are  lax  or  criminal  in  the  performance 
Defects  in  of  duty,  crime  will  flourish,  and  the  criminals 
government.  ^  be  ^^  pom^  protection  by  the  very  offi- 
cers whose  duty  it  is  to  enforce  the  law  against  them.  This 
is  the  story  of  numerous  vice  commission  reports.  The 
legislature  and  the  courts  should  cooperate  to  make  justice 
swift  and  certain.  In  England  crime  has  been  reduced  by 
this  method.  A  faulty  prison  system,  under  which  first 
offenders  mingle  with  hardened  criminals,  is  also  productive 
of  crime. 

Defects  in  our  educational  system  may  indirectly  be  the 
cause  of  crime,  just  as  they  are  of  poverty.  Illiteracy  is 


The  Problem  of  Crime  473 

high  in  the  jails,  as  well  as  in  the  almshouses,  and  lack  of 
industrial   training   is   equally  apparent.     The   Defects  in 
teaching  of  a  trade  in  early  years  might  well  have   educatwn- 
afforded  idle  hands  an  opportunity  for  honest  work. 

The  causes  of  crime  residing  in  the  individual  may  be 
hereditary   or   acquired.     Crime  is  no  more  hereditary 
than  is  pauperism,   although  the  physical  or 
mental  degeneracy  back  of  it  may  be  inherent,    causes: 


This  degeneracy  may  be  transmissible  and 
thereby  cause  certain  families  to  show  criminal 
records.  We  do  not  believe,  however,  that  there  is  a  fixed 
criminal  type,  but  that  criminality  is  often  the  evidence 
and  result  of  inferior  biological  stock.  Investigations  of 
criminologists  show  that  criminals  in  general  present  a 
greater  number  of  physical  abnormalities  than  the  average 
man.  Imbeciles,  the  insane,  and  epileptics  constitute  an 
undue  proportion  of  the  criminal  class.  Judges  have  found 
it  difficult  to  distinguish  between  crime  and  insanity,  and 
have  confessed  doubt  as  to  whether  the  criminal  should  be 
committed  to  the  penitentiary  or  to  the  asylum.  Mental 
degeneracy,  like  feeble-mindedness,  may  "run"  in  families, 
producing  criminals,  paupers,  drunkards,  and  imbeciles. 
The  criminal  who  is  inherently  degenerate  may  have 
offspring  likely  to  follow  in  his  footsteps.  But  the 
criminal  who  becomes  so  because  of  his  environment 
will  be  apt  to  have  normal  offspring. 

However,   if    these    children   are    surrounded    by  bad 
influences  in  early  childhood,  it  is  easy  for  them  to  become 
criminals.     The  cause  lies  not  in  heredity,  but  Acquired 
in  the  bad  social  environment,  from  which  they  traUs' 
should  have  been  freed.     Acquired  traits  are  the  effects 
upon  the  individual  of  the  social  and  economic  environ- 


474  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ment  in  which  he  lives.  These  are  not  usually  trans- 
missible. Just  as  normal  conditions  produce  normal  men, 
so  an  abnormal  and  unhealthy  environment  may  produce 
the  criminal.  Intemperance,  for  example,  is  an  abnor- 
mality brought  about  by  the  evils  of  environment.  Some 
years  ago  the  Committee  of  Fifty  found  that  alcohol  was 
the  chief  cause  of  crime  in  thirty-one  per  cent  of  all  cases 
investigated,  and  a  contributory  cause  in  nearly  fifty  per 
cent.  Bad  company  and  evil  associations  also  loom  large 
in  many  criminal  careers. 

Other  individual  factors  affecting  crime  are  age  and  sex. 
Practically  all  crime  falls  within  the  active  period  of  life, 
Age  and  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  forty. 
The  average  age  of  men  in  penitentiaries  is  often 
between  twenty-seven  and  twenty-eight  years.  Sex  is  also 
important,  for  the  prison  population  is  largely  made  up  of 
males.  Easily  nine-tenths  of  those  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment are  men. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of  crime  in  society  the 
environment  must  be  improved  by  the  removal  as  far  as 
Preventive  possible  of  its  causes.  Since  the  reformation  of 
measures.  ^  crmiinai  js  difficult,  the  prevention  of  crime 
should  be  the  aim  of  society.  Three  conditions  are 
necessary.  In  the  first  place,  the  evils  in  the  environment 
must  be  corrected.  Furthermore,  each  child  should  be 
afforded  proper  development  through  the  normal  process 
of  education  and  socialization  in  the  midst  of  healthy 
surroundings.  A  third  condition  is  also  necessary.  There 
must  be  enough  control  exercised  by  society  over  heredity 
to  eliminate,  by  practical  eugenic  measures,  the  inherently 
degenerate  in  society. 

Classification    of    Crimes    and    Criminals. — Serious 


The  Problem  of  Crime  475 

crimes  are  known  as  felonies,  but  the  less  important,  like 
vagrancy,  are  called  misdemeanors.  A  great  difference 
in  criminal  laws  exists  among  the  several  states,  classes 
Furthermore,  their  legal  codes  have  vary-  ofcrime- 
ing  degrees  of  punishment  for  the  same  offense.  This 
condition  frequently  works  injustice,  as  well  as  confusion, 
in  the  administration  of  criminal  law.  Another  distinction 
should  be  made.  Vice  is  an  act  which  injures  the  individual 
himself,  but  not  necessarily  society,  which  crime  does 
affect.  Our  present  social  organization  is  so  complex,  how- 
ever, that  this  distinction  has  lost  much  of  its  original 
value.  Drunkenness,  for  example,  is  becoming  as  much  a 
crime  as  a  vice.  Sin  is  distinctive  as  an  offense  against 
God's  law  rather  than  man's.  A  most  fundamental  dis- 
tinction in  classifying  crimes  is  that  between  crimes  against 
persons  and  crimes  against  property.  Another  type  of 
modern  offense  represents  crimes  against  the  social  order, 
for  civilized  society  seeks  to  supervise  numerous  actions— 
from  the  regulation  of  transportation  to  the  issuance  of 
marriage  licenses.  Crimes  may  be  classified  subjectively 
as  well  as  objectively.  Thus,  there  may  be  (i)  crimes  by 
accident;  (2)  those  of  passion;  (3)  those  of  premeditation. 
There  are  numerous  classifications  of  criminals,  but  the 
most  useful  is  the  simple  division  of  criminals  into  three 
classes:  (i)  the  born;  (2)  the  habitual;  and  classes  of 
(3)  the  occasional.  The  born  or  instinctive  criminals- 
criminal  is  the  individual  of  bad  heredity  and  of  degenerate 
stock.  He  may  be  insane,  feeble-minded,  or  afflicted  with 
other  hereditary  handicaps.  The  habitual  criminal  has  a 
normal  heredity,  but  has  been  perverted  by  an  evil  environ- 
ment. Hence  his  criminality  is  acquired.  With  the  devel- 
opment of  bad  habits  and  a  vicious  point  of  view,  it  is 


476  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

almost  as  difficult  for  him,  as  for  the  born  criminal,  to  lead 
an  upright  life.  Both  these  types  are  repeaters  before  the 
bar  of  justice.  The  occasional  criminal  is  rather  the  single 
offender.  He  has  committed  a  crime  in  passion,  or  under 
the  force  of  circumstances,  and  is  most  capable  of  future 
reformation. 

The  great  Italian  criminologist,  Caesar  Lombroso, 
expounded  the  theory  of  a  certain  definite  criminal  type. 
An  old  To  this  type,  according  to  his  theory,  belonged 
theory.  most  Q£  tne  individuals  who  had  committed 
serious  crimes  against  society.  It  could  be  recognized  by 
physical  characteristics,  such  as  skull  and  jaw  formation. 
According  to  this  theory  certain  signs  of  mental  degen- 
eracy, such  as  insensibility  to  the  sufferings  of  others,  were 
supposed  to  be  present.  This  class  was  indifferent  to  social 
approval  or  disapproval,  and  the  fact  of  guilt  created  no 
sense  of  shame.  This  degenerate  criminal  class  was 
regarded  as  resulting  from  atavism  or  reversion  to  type. 
A  primitive  man  had  been  born  into  modern  civilized 
society. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  has  an  increase  in  our  criminal  code  of  laws  become 
necessary? 

2.  What  acts  are  now  regarded  as  criminal  which  were  not  so 
regarded  in  the  past? 

3.  Name  some  offenses  which  were  formerly  regarded  as  criminal 
but  are  no  longer  so  regarded. 

4.  How  do  the  crimes  of  the  unsocial  individual  of  to-day  differ 
from  those  of  the  past? 

5.  Define  crime. 

6.  Who  punished  crime  in  early  society? 

7.  Why  does  crime  persist  with  the  advance  of  civilization? 

8.  Explain  how  law  is  the  legal  expression  of  the  group  standard 
of  conduct.    Is  it  fixed  or  variable? 


The  Problem  of  Crime  477 

9.  Why  is  the  extent  of  crime  difficult  to  determine? 

10.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  size  of  the  prison  population  of  the 
United  States. 

11.  What  racial  groups  are  conspicuous? 

12.  Estimate  the  cost  of  crime  in  the  United  States. 

13.  Is  crime  increasing? 

14.  What  influences  in  the  physical  environment  affect  conduct? 

15.  Why  is  crime  prevalent  in  the  city? 

16.  What  practical  municipal  reforms  can  you  suggest? 

17.  How  is  a  healthy  family  life  a  preventive  of  crime? 

1 8.  Name  some  vicious  social  customs. 

19.  Show  how  defects  in  government  and  political  corruption 
increase  crime. 

20.  Show  the  relation  between  crime  and  hereditary  degeneracy. 

2 1 .  Show  the  relation  between  crime  and  age ;  between  crime  and  sex. 

22.  What  should  be  the  three  aims  of  preventive  measures? 

23.  Distinguish  between  several  kinds  of  crimes. 

24.  Give  a  simple  classification  of  criminals . 

25.  Do  you  believe  in  a  criminal  type?    Why  or  why  not? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Prohibition  and  the  crime  rate. 

2.  War  and  the  crime  rate. 

3.  Crime  and  city  life. 

4.  Crime  and  the  negro. 

5.  Crime  and  the  immigrant. 

6.  The  effects  of  climate  and  seasons  upon  crime. 

7.  Lombroso  and  the  early  school  of  criminologists. 

8.  Acts  regarded  as  crimes  in  England  from  1750-1850. 

9.  Make  parallel  lists  of  the  causes  of  crime  and  of  the  causes  of 
poverty. 

10.  Eugenic  measures  for  the  prevention  of  crime. 

11.  The  psychology  of  crime. 

REFERENCES 

ELLIS,  H.     The  Criminal. 

ELLWOOD,  C.  A.    Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems.    Chapter 

XIV.' 


478  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

HAYES,  E.  C.    Introduction  to  the   Study   of  Sociology.     Chapter 

XXXII. 
HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Dependents,  Defectives  and  Delinquents.    Part 

IV.     Chapters  I,  II  and  V 
Ross,  E.  A.    Sin  and  Society. 
SMITH,  S.  G.    Social  Pathology. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE  TREATMENT  or  THE  CRIMINAL 

I.  Criminal  procedure 

1.  Historical  development: 

a.  Private  warfare 

b.  Medieval  trials 

c.  King's  court 

d.  Jury  trial 

e.  A  body  of  law 

2.  Modern  problems : 

a.  The  legal  machinery 

b.  Defects  in  jury  system 

c.  Suggested  reforms 
II.  Punishment  of  crime 

1.  Point  of  view: 

a.  Vengeance 

b.  Prevention 

c.  Reformation 

2.  Early  treatment: 

a.  Former  cruelty 

b.  Prison  reform 

3.  The  present  prison  system: 

a.  The  county  jail 

b.  Need  of  special  institutions 

c.  A  plan  suggested 

d.  Administration: 

(1)  Prison  life 

(2)  Discipline 

(3)  Records 

(4)  Prison  labor 

479 


480  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

4.  Advocated  reforms: 

a.  Indeterminate  sentence 

b.  Parole 

c.  Substitutes  for  imprisonment 

d.  Abolition  of  capital  punishment 

5.  Delinquent  children: 

a.  Juvenile  courts 

b.  Reform  schools 

Criminal  Procedure. — In  the  patriarchal,  tribal,  and 
feudal  stages  of  society  the  aggrieved  man's  cause  was 
Historical  championed  by  his  family,  tribe,  or  feudal  lord, 
develop-  This  method  of  settlement  caused  endless  blood 

ment:  • 

Private  feuds,  like  those  which  existed  between  the 
warfare.  Arabian  tribes,  or  the  clans  of  the  Scotch  high- 
landers.  The  injury  was  avenged  with  interest  by  the  per- 
petration of  a  similar  wrong  upon  the  aggressor  himself  or 
his  group.  Thus,  the  strife  and  confusion  continued  in  the 
well-known  feudal  warfare  of  medieval  Europe.  Such  was 
also  the  condition  in  ancient  Israel  where  Moses  instituted 
cities  of  refuge  in  which  homicides  were  temporarily  safe 
from  the  avenger.  The  altars  of  ancient  temples  and  of 
medieval  cathedrals  were  protecting  sanctuaries.  Grad- 
ually, the  power  of  the  central  government  increased  and 
took  into  its  own  hands  the  restoration  of  order  and  the 
punishment  of  crime.  In  time,  the  injury  came  to  be  mea- 
sured in  terms  of  money  value.  This  was  known  as  wergeld 
(worth  money)  among  the  Anglo  Saxons,  and  the  code  of 
King  Alfred  regulated  minutely  how  much  was  to  be  paid 
for  the  loss  of  an  eye,  a  hand,  or  a  finger. 

A  famous  method  of  trial  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  that 
by  ordeal.  The  religious  faith  of  the  period  was  respon- 
sible for  the  belief  that  God  would  declare,  in  some  miracu- 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  481 

lous  way,  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the  accused  person,  who 
was  required  to  place  his  hand  in  boiling  water  or  to  walk 
over  red  hot  plough  shares.  If  after  three  Medieval 
days,  the  wound  was  regarded  as  healing,  the  tnabm 
accused  was  considered  innocent.  Otherwise  he  was 
guilty;  for  God  had  refused  to  protect  him.  A  more 
rational  method  was  that  of  compurgation.  The  accused 
might  bring  his  friends  to  swear  that  they  believed  his 
oath.  If  the  number  of  compurgators  was  not  sufficient, 
he  must  undergo  the  ordeal.  The  word  of  a  noble  was 
equal  to  that  of  several  thanes,  whose  testimony  in  turn 
outweighed  that  of  ordinary  freemen.  William  the  Con- 
queror introduced  into  England  from  the  continent  the 
wager  of  battle.  Each  party,  like  Rebecca  in  Scott's 
Ivanhoe,  chose  a  champion,  and  the  two  warriors  fought 
out  the  cause  in  the  presence  of  God  and  man. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  there  were  three  kinds  of  courts — 
those  of  the  nobles,  those  of  the  Church,  and  those  of  the 
king.  The  Church  tried  all  sins,  such  as  heresy,  The  kin^s 
and  the  condemned  were  handed  over  to  the  couri" 
State  for  execution.  Many  other  matters,  like  those  per- 
taining to  marriage  and  divorce,  fell  within  her  jurisdic- 
tion. Each  noble  lord  also  maintained  his  own  court  and 
possessed  dungeons  in  his  castle  for  those  vassals  who 
refused  to  obey  his  law.  As  feudalism  declined,  most  cases 
came  gradually  into  the  king's  court.  The  accused  received 
a  fairer  trial  from  the  royal  justices  upon  the  circuit  than 
from  the  feudal  courts.  As  the  fines  and  penalties  con- 
stituted a  considerable  source  of  income,  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  king's  court  became  gradually  extended.  The 
baronial  courts  came  to  be  things  of  the  past.  Certain 
streets,  houses,  individuals,  days,  and  other  such  circum- 
FF 


482  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

stances  were  declared  to  be  under  the  king's  peace,  and  all 
cases  thus  arising  were  to  come  before  the  king's  court. 
As  legal  development  went  on,  there  came  into  exist- 
ence two  kinds  of  juries — the  petty  and  the  grand.  The 
former  tried  the  criminals  whom  the  latter  had 
previously  indicted  or  held  for  court.  The 
king's  court  in  England  developed  trial  by  jury  as  a  more 
suitable  method  of  administering  justice  than  the  old 
medieval  customs  just  described.  The  travelling  royal 
justice,  who  was  to  sit  upon  the  case,  issued  an  order  for 
a  number  of  men  to  investigate  the  offense  and  render  a 
sworn  verdict.  In  a  criminal  case,  they  were  to  state 
whether  they  thought  the  man  guilty  or  not,  and,  in  a  civil 
case,  they  were  to  designate  which  of  the  two  parties  had 
the  better  claim.  Gradually  a  distinction  was  made 
between  those  who  knew  the  facts  and  came  to  be  regarded 
as  witnesses  and  those  who  were  unacquainted  with  the 
facts.  The  latter  were  apt  to  be  more  impartial  and  were 
called  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  case.  These  constituted 
the  germ  of  the  petty  jury.  The  grand  jury,  as  well  as  the 
petty  jury,  is  associated  with  the  reign  of  Henry  II  of 
England.  At  that  time  there  had  been  a  great  increase 
in  the  number  of  crimes,  and  the  criminals  had  not  been 
apprehended.  Hence,.  Henry  IJ  provided  that,  when  the 
king's  justice  came  to  a  county,  a  number  of  men  should 
be  selected  and  required  to  give  upon  oath  the  number  of 
crimes  committed  in  that  locality  and  the  names  of  those 
suspected.  The  State,  and  not  the  aggrieved  individual, 
thus  came  to  be  the  prosecuting  party,  and  the  grand  jury 
came  into  existence  for  the  indictment  of  criminals.  The 
sheriff  of  each  county  was  required  to  raise  the  "hue  and 
cry"  against  the  offender  and  could  demand  the  assistance 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  483 

of  all  good  citizens  in  securing  the  arrest  of  the  supposed 
criminal. 

The  justices  sitting  as  a  combined  body,  or  the  individual 
members  upon  the  circuit,  kept  a  record  of  the  cases  settled 
and  the  decisions  rendered.  These  may  be  A  body 
regarded  as  the  formal  legal  expression  of  the  °flaw' 
unwritten  customs  and  moral  ideas  of  the  community. 
They  were  generally  logical,  consistent,  conformable  to 
custom,  and  came  to  be  known  as  the  "common  law." 
This  body  of  law  was  centuries  in  the  making  and  to-day 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  English  jurisprudence  and  its  Amer- 
ican offspring.  In  addition  to  the  common  law  there  is  also 
statutory  law.  This  is  made  up  of  numerous  formal  enact- 
ments passed,  in  England  by  Parliament,  and  in  our  own 
country  by  the  national  Congress  and  state  legislatures. 

Although  the  federal  courts  punish  offenders  against 
national  laws,  the  great  volume  of  criminal  cases,  as  well 
as  civil,  come  before  the  state  courts.     Each 
state  is  divided  into  judicial  districts,  which  cor-    problems: 


respond  more  or  less  with  county  lines.  The 
state  judiciary  is  organized  into  courts  of  com- 
mon pleas  for  civil  cases,  and  courts  of  quarter  sessions  for 
the  trial  of  criminals.  Since  every  citizen  has  the  right  to 
be  protected  from  arbitrary  seizure,  a  warrant  is  generally 
required  for  his  arrest,  unless  the  offense  has  been  com- 
mitted in  the  presence  of  the  constable  or  policeman. 
The  sheriff  is  the  supreme  county  official  charged  with  the 
duty  of  arrest,  custody,  or  execution  of  the  criminal.  The 
coroner  is  the  county  official  who  investigates  the*  causes 
of  deaths  in  an  effort  to  prevent'  and  punish  crime.  Cases 
may  be  brought  before  a  magistrate  in  the  city  or  a  justice 
of  the  peace  in  the  country.  Trivial  cases  are  within  their 


484  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

jurisdiction,  and  they  may  discharge  the  prisoner  or  assign 
a  light  penalty  in  the  form  of  fine  or  imprisonment.  If 
the  offense  is  serious,  the  prisoner  is  sent  to  jail  to  await 
trial  by  the  county  court,  or  set  free  upon  the  payment  of 
bail  given  in  proportion  to  the  seriousness  of  the  offense. 
The  accusation  is  then  tested  before  the  grand  jury  and  a 
bill  of  indictment  is  filed,  or  the  accused  is  released  because 
of  insufficiency  of  evidence  against  him.  If  not  released, 
the  prisoner  is  finally  arraigned  before  the  bar  of  justice 
when  his  case  is  called  before  the  court.  The  charge  is 
read  and  he  may  plead  innocent  or  guilty.  He  may 
employ  his  own  lawyer  or,  if  unable  to  pay  for  such  service, 
the  state  provides  an  attorney  for  him.  The  district  attor- 
ney, or  one  of  his  assistants,  represents  the  state  by  the 
prosecution  of  the  criminal.  Witnesses  who  testify  are 
forced  to  appear  in  court  by  the  serving  of  subpoenas.  A 
jury  of  twelve  then  renders  a  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty, 
and  the  judge  fixes  the  sentence.  The  jury  decides  upon 
the  evidence  in  the  case — true  or  false — and  the  judge  upon 
its  legal  significance. 

The  jury  system  is  rightly  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
results  of  English  political  development.  The  prisoner, 
Defects  in  who  is  given  every  opportunity  for  defending 
em'  himself,  is  regarded  as  innocent  until  proved 
guilty.  But  like  all  social  institutions,  trial  by  jury  has 
its  defects.  Under  this  system  a  large  number  of  guilty 
escape;  for  it  is  agreed  that  it  is  better  for  nine  guilty  per- 
sons to  escape  than  for  one  innocent  man  to  suffer.  A 
unanimous  verdict  of  the  twelve  jurors  is  generally  neces- 
sary for  conviction  and  if  any  one  of  the  numerous  rules 
of  procedure  is  broken,  a  new  trial  may  be  secured.  In 
this  country  the  work  of  the  courts  is  notoriously  slow, 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  485 

whereas  justice  should  be  both  swift  and  certain  in  order 
to  be  effective.  In  the  third  place,  those  serving  upon 
juries  are  often  relatively  uneducated.  Intelligent  indi- 
viduals, who  should  perform  this  civic  duty,  often  seek  to 
escape  such  work  in  order  to  engage  in  their  own  more 
profitable  occupations.  Others  plead  conscientious  objec- 
tions to  serving.  Again,  the  jury  is  apt  to  be  swayed  by 
the  skill  and  eloquence  of  lawyers  who  gain  their  ends  by 
sentimental  use  of  the  pathetic  prisoner  or  the  dramatic 
witness.  Some  writers  upon  jurisprudence  would  sub- 
stitute for  the  jury  a  bench  of  three  judges.  Many  regard 
this,  however,  as  too  radical  an  innovation. 

Undoubtedly  some  changes  should  be  made  in  legal  pro- 
cedure. For  example,  the  state  should  employ  social 
experts  in  criminology,  as  well  as  those  versed  in  suggested 
the  law.  These  should  be  trained  to  distinguish  re^orms- 
between  the  different  classes  of  criminals  and  to  pass  upon 
questions  of  insanity  and  abnormality.  Their  special 
training  in  psychology  would  also  enable  them  to  evaluate 
testimony.  In  the  next  place,  a  great  discrepancy  exists 
in  the  administration  of  the  law.  Not  only  do  the  legal 
codes  of  the  different  states  vary  greatly  in  penalties 
inflicted  for  the  same  crime,  but  within  a  given  state  there 
is  a  great  variation  in  the  severity  of  the  decisions  of  the 
different  judges.  This  situation  is  difficult  to  avoid  because 
the  human  equation  is  ever  present.  The  last  objection 
to  our  criminal  system,  however,  is  most  fundamental. 
We  are  still  seeking  to  make  the  punishment  fit  the  crime 
and  not  the  criminal.  Retribution  is  still  largely  the  aim 
of  punishment,  and  its  character  and  amount  are  fixed 
according  to  the  gravity  of  the  crime.  However,  if  refor- 
mation is  the  desired  end,  the  punishment  should  be  made 


486  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

to  fit  the  needs  of  the  criminal  rather  than  the  nature  of  the 
crime.  Such  a  policy  would  mean  that  different  offenders 
would  receive  different  sentences  for  the  same  offense.  The 
single  offender  or  occasional  criminal  might  be  treated  with 
leniency  because  he  is  not  likely  to  repeat  his  wrongdoing. 
The  habitual  criminal,  however,  might  be  sentenced  for 
the  same  offense  to  the  permanent  custody  of  the  peni- 
tentiary, and  the  instinctive  criminal  assigned  to  one  of 
the  institutions  for  defectives.  It  must  be  said,  however, 
that  judges  do  make  distinctions  between  first  offenders 
and  hardened  criminals.  They  are  also  sentencing  a 
greater  proportion  of  prisoners  to  specialized  institutions 
where  more  individual  treatment  may  be  secured. 

Punishment  of  Crime.— The  first  point  of  view  in 
regard  to  punishment  for  crime  was  that  of  revenge.  This 
Point  attitude  was  most  conspicuous  in  the  early  days 

of  view:        Of  private  warfare,  when  the  aggrieved  indi- 

Vengeance.  .  .      .  . 

vidual  or  his  group  vented  his  wrath  upon  the 
offender,  whose  entire  family  was  often  made  to  suffer. 
If  the  offender  himself  could  not  be  captured,  substitutes 
taken  as  hostages  might  suffer  the  fate  intended  for  the 
original  wrong-doer.  "An  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for 
a  tooth"  was  the  spirit  of  that  age. 

Somewhat  of  the  same  spirit  continued  long  after  crime 
came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  social,  rather  than  an  indi- 
vidual offense,  which  the  State  itself  undertook 

Prevention. 

to  punish.  In  order  to  deter  others  from  a 
similar  course,  an  attempt  was  made  at  intimidation 
through  torture  and  death  by  the  most  cruel  means.  Exe- 
cutions were  public,  and  the  heads  of  criminals  and  politic  a  1 
victims  were  placed  upon  long  poles  and  exhibited  from 
the  walls  and  towers  of  the  town. 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  487 

Curiously  enough,  the  severity  of  the  penalty  has  been 
found  to  have  a  less  direct  relation  to  the  repetition  of  the 
crime  than  was  at  first  supposed.  Torture  and 
barbaric  punishments  have  lowered  the  public 
morality  and  driven  toward  crime  as  many  as  have  been 
deterred  from  it  by  fear  of  cruel  penalties.  The  modern 
point  of  view  toward  the  whole  criminal  problem  is  that  of 
reformation  or  improvement  both  in  the  criminal  himself 
and  in  his  environment.  Prevention  of  crime  through  the 
improvement  of  social  environment  is  most  fundamental. 
Regarding  the  individual  criminal,  the  reformatory  rather 
than  the  punitive  attitude  should  be  taken.  Like  the 
pauper,  the  criminal  should  be  viewed  as  one  who  is  socially 
diseased.  In  rendering  sentence  society,  through  its 
instrument  the  judge,  should  prescribe  for  him  in  the  r6le 
of  social  physician. 

Formerly,  many  crimes  were  punishable  by  death  admin- 
istered in  various  ways  according  to  social  sanction.    Burn- 
ing was  common  for  slaves  and  heretics,  but  with 
the  advance  of  civilization,  beheading  became    treatment: 


popular.  In  England  the  block,  and  in  France 
the  guillotine,  took  the  place  of  the  stake. 
Hanging  has  been  a  common  fate  for  modern  criminals, 
and  only  recently  has  it  given  way  to  the  more  humane 
method  of  electrocution.  Until  recent  times  torture  was 
frequently  practiced.  The  victim  might  be  drawn  and 
quartered,  or  broken  upon  the  wheel,  and  in  very  ancient 
times  crucifixion  was  common.  The  death  penalty  was 
not  only  cruel  but  frequent.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  public  executioner  at  Nuremberg 
put  to  death  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  per- 
sons, and  seventy  thousand  executions  took  place  during 


488  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  of  England.  As  late  as  the  last 
century,  the  death  penalty  was  inflicted  upon  children 
and  those  guilty  of  minor  offenses  such  as  stealing.  Brand- 
ing and  flogging  were  also  common.  Unfortunates  sen- 
tenced to  sit  in  the  pillory  were  pelted  by  jeering  crowds, 
while  the  public  hangings  at  Tyburn  prison  in  London 
were  regarded  as  holiday  amusements.  In  revolutionary 
France,  the  women,  while  knitting,  enjoyed  the  ghastly 
guillotine. 

The  prisons  of  ancient  times  defy  description.  Prison- 
ers languished  in  filthy  underground  dungeons  until  death 
Prison  put  an  end  to  their  misery.  Often  they  were 
reform.  political  offenders  against  whom  no  just  legal 
charge  could  be  brought.  Such  was  the  situation  in  the 
famous  Bastille.  To  prevent  this  arbitrary  imprisonment, 
the  English  parliament  had  passed  a  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 
Debtors,  however,  continued  to  suffer  imprisonment  until 
very  recent  tunes.  Prison  conditions  were  unspeakable. 
The  sick  and  diseased  spread  their  contagions,  while  often 
the  two  sexes  mingled  promiscuously.  In  some  jails  so 
little  food  was  provided  that  many  prisoners  were  forced 
to  beg  from  their  more  fortunate  brethren.  The  jailers 
were  generally  brutal  characters  who  exacted  fees  on  the 
slightest  pretext.  The  warden  of  the  Marshalsea,  pictured 
in  Dickens'  story,  had  at  one  time  an  income  of  £3000  a 
year  derived  from  such  sources.  Modern  prison  reform 
may  be  said  to  date  from  the  tune  of  the  Italian,  Beccaria, 
and  the  Englishman,  John  Howard.  Beccaria  was  a  stu- 
dent who  published  a  book  against  torture  and  advocated 
a  reform  of  the  criminal  law.  John  Howard  (1726-1790) 
was  one  of  the  greatest  reformers  of  all  times.  As  sheriff 
of  Bedford,  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  prison  where  a 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  489 

century  before  John  Bunyan  had  written  his  Pilgrim's 
Progress.     By  personal  experience,  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  jail  conditions  which  he  pictured  before  the  House 
of  Commons.     A  great  traveler,  he  visited  the  prisons  of 
many    leading    European    countries    and    studied    their 
wretched  conditions.     He  called  attention  to  their  most 
glaring  evils  and  inaugurated  a  movement  for  their  reform. 
The  greatest  evil  in  our  present  prison  system  is  the 
county  jail.     This  is  regarded  by  experts  as  a  most  efficient 
school    for    crime.     Here    prisoners    are    com- 
mitted thirty  or  ninety  days  for  minor  offenses,    present 
In  the  jail  are  confined  those  guilty  of  mis-    sySem: 
demeanors,  while  the  more  serious  felons  are   The  county 

jatl. 

sent  to  the  penitentiary.  Old  and  young  mingle 
freely,  and  the  vicious  hardened  criminal  narrates  his  deeds 
to  the  young  offender,  who  thus  acquires  criminal  knowl- 
edge and  bad  habits.  The  tramp,  the  outcast,  and  the  dis- 
orderly are  kept  here  along  with  those  who  are  merely 
awaiting  trial.  In  most  counties  there  is  not  sufficient 
need,  or  enough  funds,  to  warrant  the  building  of  larger 
and  better  jails.  When  such  is  the  case,  however,  several 
counties  should  unite  in  the  building  of  a  district  jail  that 
can  provide  proper  separation  of  prisoners,  adequate 
discipline,  regular  industry,  and  effective  reformatory 
measures. 

Difference  in  types  of  criminals  makes  the  need  of  indi- 
vidualized  treatment  imperative.     In   other  words,   dis- 
tinctive institutions  for  different  criminal  classes  Negd 
are   needed.     The    instinctive    criminal,    often 
feeble-minded  or  otherwise  defective,  cannot  be 
reformed  and  is  dangerous  at  large  in  society.     This  small 
group  should  be  kept  in  permanent  custody.  The  habitual 


4QO  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

criminal  is  difficult  of  reformation  and  is  apt  to  commit 
further  crime.  He  should  be  placed  in  a  state  peniten- 
tiary, under  an  indeterminate  sentence,  and  should  be  kept 
there  until  there  is  adequate  proof  that  he  is  no  longer  a 
menace  to  society.  The  novice  should  be  separated  from 
the  hardened  criminal.  In  some  cases,  he  may  well  be  dealt 
with  outside  the  prison  walls  by  a  system  of  probation. 
Young  offenders  need  very  careful  treatment  because  they 
present  the  possibility  of  reform.  Reform  schools  are 
therefore  needed  for  juvenile  offenders. 

In  order  to  avoid  mass  treatment  and  to  individualize 
the  prison  system  for  the  various  groups  of  offenders, 
A  plan  Professor  Ellwood  suggests  that  each  state 
should  have  at  least  the  following  separate  types 
of  institutions:  (i)  county  and  city  jails,  which  should  be 
used  only  for  the  temporary  detention  of  prisoners  await- 
ing trial.  One  evil  of  our  present  system,  as  we  have 
seen,  has  been  the  use  of  the  county  jail  or  the  city  "lock- 
up" as  the  place  of  imprisonment  for  all  the  different 
groups  of  prisoners  serving  petty  sentences.  (2)  Reform 
schools  for  all  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  or  at 
least  under  the  compulsory  school  age.  (3)  Reformatories 
for  first  offenders,  particularly  for  the  young.  This  group 
would  thus  be  separated  from  habitual  criminals,  and  in 
the  treatment  of  this  class  industrial  training  should  be 
emphasized.  (4)  State  penitentiaries  for  all  habitual 
criminals.  (5)  Special  reformatories  for  vagrants,  ine- 
briates, and  like  characters.  (6)  Hospital  prisons  for  the 
criminally  insane.  Other  defectives,  wherever  found, 
should  receive  specialized  treatment. 

The  responsible  head  of  the  prison  is  the  warden  or 
superintendent.  In  order  to  secure  efficient  administra- 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  491 

tion  this  officer  should  be  empowered  to  appoint  subordi- 
nates, under  a  civil  service  system.  There  should  be  a 
competent  medical  staff  in  addition  to  the  force  Adminis- 
of  clerks,  guards,  and  housekeepers.  Industrial  tratwn- 
training  is  important  because  if  the  prisoner  is  later  to 
become  a  useful  member  of  society,  he  must  have  some 
means  of  livelihood  when  discharged  from  prison.  Trade 
schools  should  be  established  for  the  young,  while  the  older 
men  are  given  employment  in  the  shops  or  in  work  around 
the  institution.  In  the  past,  prisoners  have  been  forced  to 
perform  unprofitable  occupations  or  those  of  little  practical 
value  in  after  life.  In  some  penitentiaries,  classes  are  con- 
ducted where  illiterate  convicts  are  taught  to  read  and 
write. 

Formerly,  prison  discipline  has  been  very  severe  and 
the  "lock  step"  method  in  vogue.  Warden  McKenty,  of 
the  Eastern  Penitentiary  in  Pennsylvania,  has  found  that 
a  more  liberal  spirit  is  not  only  advantageous  to  the  man 
himself  in  the  process  of  reformation,  but  that  it  is  also  a 
factor  for  good  throughout  the  entire  institution.  The 
same  spirit  characterized  the  work  of  Superintendent 
Osborne  at  Sing  Sing.  Instead  of  brutal  punishment,  the 
deprivation  of  special  privileges  may  be  used  with  greater 
power  for  effective  discipline.  Under  this  system  prisoners 
are  graded,  and  each  grade  has  greater  privileges  than  the 
one  below.  Marks  and  demerits  may  be  given,  so  that 
the  prisoner  with  a  good  record  maybe  able  to  advance  to  the 
highest  grade.  There  may  also  be  the  possibility  of  short- 
ening the  sentence  by  good  behavior.  In  some  hardened 
cases  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  resort  to  a  system  of 
solitary  confinement,  combined  with  restricted  diet,  or 
even  to  corporal  punishment.  In  earlier  days,  a  con- 


492  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

troversy  existed  between  the  advocates  of  what  was  known 
as  the  solitary  or  separate  system  of  confinement  and  its 
opponents.  These  two  plans  were  known  as  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Auburn  systems  respectively.  The  former 
method  guards  against  corruption  due  to  evil  associations, 
but  the  lack  of  human  contact  may  result  in  insanity  or 
some  lesser  form  of  mental  abnormality. 

It  may  be  said  of  the  administration  of  prisons,  as 
well  as  of  almshouses,  that  more  complete  records  should 
be  kept.  There  should  be  some  central  clearing  house  for 
the  records  of  prisoners,  many  of  whom  have  been  found 
to  be  repeaters  under  assumed  names.  There  is  a  system 
of  measuring  each  individual  criminal  known  as  the  Ber- 
tillon  system.  The  lengths  of  the  bones  are  recorded,  for 
these  do  not  grow  after  physical  maturity  is  reached.  Full- 
face  and  profile  photographs  of  the  prisoner  are  also  taken  for 
the  "  rogues'  gallery."  The  print  of  the  thumb  is  a  further 
mark  of  identification  because  no  two  of  these  are  alike. 

Prisoners  were  employed  in  earlier  days  at  most  severe 
labor.  In  the  last  century  convicts,  like  Jean  Valjean  in 
Victor  Hugo's  story,  were  sent  to  the  galleys.  Convict 
labor  upon  the  roads  is  still  common  and  may  be  beneficial, 
if  properly  regulated  and  supervised.  It  was  formerly 
common  to  lease  a  gang  of  convicts  to  some  contractor, 
who  was  responsible  for  their  care.  They  were  often 
poorly  treated,  however;  for  profit,  not  reformation,  was 
the  aim  of  the  contractor.  The  evil  of  this  system  became 
so  apparent  that  the  state  was  forced  to  keep  control  of  its 
prisoners  when  they  were  turned  over  to  an  outside  employer. 
Prisoners  should  be  made  to  work  because  idleness  is 
physically,  mentally,  and  morally  pernicious.  The  work, 
however,  should  have  some  educational  value  and  enable 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  493 

the  convict  to  earn  an  honest  living.  In  the  past  prisoners 
have  been  taught  a  trade  only  to  find,  when  discharged, 
that  it  possessed  little  practical  economic  value.  Organized 
labor  has  opposed  convict  labor  as  injurious  to  the  wages  of 
the  free  workman.  Some  states  either  prohibit  or  place 
restrictions  upon  the  prison  output.  Under  the  law  of 
1897  m  Pennsylvania,  not  more  than  thirty-five  per  cent 
of  the  inmates  of  a  penal  institution  may  be  employed  in 
the  production  of  goods  for  sale,  nor  may  any  power 
machinery  be  used.  The  "  state  use"  system  attempts  to 
overcome  this  objection  of  the  labor  unions  by  producing 
articles  needed  in  various  state  institutions.  Farms  are  also 
being  purchased  by  the  state,  because  outdoor  work  is  physi- 
cally most  beneficial  to  the  prisoner.  Convicts  are  also  at 
work  upon  roads  and  other  public  improvements. 

It  is  impossible  to  know  in  advance  just  how  long  it 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  an  individual  a  prisoner  before 
he  is  sufficiently  disciplined  to  be  set  at  large. 

,,•.",:          .  Advocated 

Hence  many  advocate  the  indeterminate  sen-   reforms: 


tence  which  does  not  state  exactly  the  length  of 
imprisonment.  The  convict  must  furnish  evi- 
dence by  his  conduct,  self-control,  obedience,  and  habits  of 
steady  work  that  he  is  capable  of  making  an  honest  living. 
Students  of  law  fear  that  this  system  would  be  a  temptation 
to  prison  officials  to  keep  certain  prisoners  longer  in  jail 
than  would  be  just  to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
individual  convicted  of  some  serious  crime  might  be  released 
too  soon.  The  occasional  criminal  would  profit,  and  the 
habitual  criminal  suffer,  by  its  adoption.  It  is  true  that 
the  indeterminate  sentence  places  an  enormous  responsi- 
bility in  the  hands  of  the  warden  of  the  penitentiary.  It  also 
necessitates  an  entire  change  in  our  point  of  view  toward 


494  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

the  criminal.  Punishment  must  no  longer  be  unalterably 
fixed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  crime,  but  must  be 
adjusted  to  the  nature  of  the  man  who  commits  the  crime. 
The  indeterminate  sentence  presents  the  objection  that 
it  is  impossible  for  prison  officials  to  predict  how  a  man  will 
use  his  newly  obtained  freedom.  His  conduct 
within  prison  walls  may  be  sufficiently  excel- 
lent to  win  the  approval  of  the  officials,  but  when  restraint 
is  removed  he  may  again  become  morally  deficient.  Hence, 
some  writers  have  argued  that  the  prisoner  should  not  be 
permanently  discharged,  but  only  conditionally  freed  under 
the  system  of  parole.  He  is  not  to  be  released  until 
employment  has  been  found  for  him,  and  he  must  break 
loose  from  his  former  evil  associations.  He  must  return 
to  the  penitentiary  occasionally,  with  a  report  from  his 
employer  and  perhaps  from  another  reputable  citizen. 
At  the  end  of  his  term  of  sentence,  he  is  relieved  of  this 
supervision  which  has  been  a  good  preparation  for  absolute 
freedom.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  violates  his  parole  or 
again  falls  into  evil  ways,  he  is  returned  to  jail.  The 
parole  system  has  many  good  features,  but,  like  many  other 
prison  reforms,  it  is  difficult  of  administration.  Unregen- 
erate  criminals  have  been  known  to  forge  reports  and, 
meanwhile,  resort  to  their  old  practices.  The  administra- 
tor should  always  hesitate  about  furnishing  parole  to  the 
habitual  criminal. 

Instead  of  being  sentenced  to  the  county  jail  for  a  mis- 
demeanor, the  offender,  unless  a  dangerous  character, 
Substitutes  m^S^lt  ke  put  upon  probation  by  the  judge. 
jorim-  When  work  has  been  secured,  he  should  be 
regularly  visited  by  the  probation  officer.  For 
the  first  offender,  the  fear  of  imprisonment  may  be  a  great 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  495 

deterrent.  But  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  were  imprisoned, 
he  might  lose  all  hope  of  an  honest  future.  In  certain  cases 
fines  may  be  substituted  for  imprisonment,  but  some 
method  should  be  devised  whereby  poor  offenders  may  be 
able  to  discharge  their  indebtedness  in  installments  and 
thus  avoid  jail.  Fines,  however,  have  little  reformative 
value  to  the  criminal  and  frequently  work  great  hardship 
to  his  poverty-stricken  family.  Reparation  to  the  injured 
party  should  be  required  as  the  condition  necessary  to  sus- 
pending a  sentence  of  hard  labor.  This  is  not  only  just  to 
the  injured  party,  but  also  of  disciplinary  value  to  the 
offender.  Transportation  of  criminals  has  sometimes  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  imprisonment,  but  the  results  have 
not  always  been  beneficial.  Australia  was  originally  used 
as  a  penal  colony,  but  the  practice  was  finally  stopped  after 
numerous  appeals  from  the  colonists.  For  vagrants, 
feeble-minded,  and  certain  other  classes  of  delinquents, 
agricultural  colonies  under  strict  supervision  have  been 
advocated.  Such  colonies,  however,  must  be  kept  isolated. 
The  abolition  of  capital  punishment  has  been  urged 
by  some  writers,  who  question  the  right  of  society  to  take 
the  life  of  an  individual,  while  admitting  its  Abolition 
right  to  put  the  offender  in  permanent  custody  of  capital 

punishment. 

in  order  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  similar  out- 
rages. Others  regard  the  death  penalty  for  murder  as 
just  and  plead  the  old  argument  of  retribution  expressed 
in  the  rule  of  "an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth." 
Others,  again,  fear  that  the  abolition  of  capital  punishment 
would  lead  to  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  serious 
crimes  committed.  We  have  seen,  however,  that  the  fear 
of  cruel  punishment  does  not  always  work  as  a  deterrent 
to  crime.  At  present,  the  death  penalty  prevents  many 


496  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

juries  from  condemning  criminals  whose  guilt  is  practically 
assured.  The  abolition  of  capital  punishment  would  thus 
result  in  a  greater  number  of  convictions  for  the  more 
serious  crimes. 

Juvenile  courts  were  first  established  in  our  large  cities. 
Certain  states  have  since  authorized  all  judges,  in  districts 

where  there  are  no  special  juvenile  courts,  to 
children*11  suspend  ordinary  rules  of  procedure  in  dealing 
courts***  with  criminals  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  The 

object  aimed  at  in  such  cases  is  to  prescribe 
reformatory  treatment  for  those  young  persons  who  seem 
to  be  starting  upon  a  criminal  career.  In  conjunction  with 
the  court,  there  is  a  probation  officer  to  investigate  the  case 
and  to  supervise  the  young  delinquent.  He  is  not  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment,  but  is.  allowed  to  return  home 
upon  probation.  The  court  officer  watches  over  his  con- 
duct and  environment.  School  attendance  or,  if  beyond 
school  age,  the  character  of  employment  is  especially 
important  in  these  cases.  Home  conditions  should  be 
good  and  association  with  evil  companions  avoided.  No 
publicity  is  given  these  juvenile  offenders,  who  under  such 
circumstances  might  be  tempted  to  regard  themselves  as 
of  some  importance. 

Special  institutions  are  needed  for  youths  who  have 
committed  crimes  serious  enough  to  send  an  adult  to  the 
Reform  penitentiary.  A  rural  environment  and  the 

occupation  of  agriculture  are  often  found  to  be 
beneficial,  while  trade  instruction  is  necessary  for  those 
who  return  to  city  life.  The  cottage  system  of  administra- 
tion in  such  cases  is  much  more  effective  than  mass  treat- 
ment in  dormitories.  Individualization  and  personal  con- 
tact are  essential  in  the  education  and  reformation  of 


The  Treatment  of  the  Criminal  497 

youthful  offenders.  The  aim  of  all  such  treatment  is  the 
quickening  of  the  moral  sense  and  the  development  of  self- 
reliance  in  the  form  of  ability  to  acquire  economic  inde- 
pendence. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  was  crime  originally  punished? 

2.  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  trial  used  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

3.  What  reform  did  Henry  II  introduce? 

4.  Follow  the  trial  of  a  criminal  from  his  arrest  to  his  conviction. 
Show  the  duties  of  the  various  judicial  bodies  and  officers. 

5.  Show  the  strength  and  weakness  of  our  present  criminal 
procedure. 

6.  What  reforms  are  advocated? 

7.  How  has  the  point  of  view  toward  the  criminal  changed? 
Discuss  the  three  stages. 

8.  Discuss  early  prison  reform  and  reformers. 

9.  Discuss  the  evils  of  the  present  county  jail. 

10.  Show  the  dangers  of  mass  treatment. 

1 1 .  What  different  types  of  institutions  are  needed  in  any  adequate 
prison  system? 

12.  What  improvements  have  been  made  in  penal  admins tration? 

13.  What  should  be  the  aim  of  convict  labor? 

14.  Show  the  evils  of  the  contract  system. 

1 5 .  Give  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  indeterminate  sentence . 

1 6.  Explain  the  parole  system. 

17.  What  substitutes  for  imprisonment  have  been  tried? 

1 8.  Give  the  arguments  for  and  against  capital  punishment. 

19.  What  is  your  opinion? 

20.  How  do  the  juvenile  courts  differ  from  the  others? 

21.  What  are  the  functions  of  a  probation  officer? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Trial  by  ordeal  and  compurgation. 

2.  The  evolution  of  jury  trial  in  England. 

3.  The  criminal  code  of  a  century  ago. 

GG 


498  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

4.  The  life  and  work  of  John  Howard. 

5.  Early  prisons  and  their  occupants. 
£.  The  model  penitentiary. 

7.  Trade  unions  and  convict  labor. 

8.  The  reform  school  and  the  boy  criminal. 

9.  The  penal  institutions  of  your  own  state. 

10.  The  influence  of  nineteenth  century  English  literature  upon 
criminal  reform. 

REFERENCES 

HAYES,  E.  C.     Introduction   to  the  Study  of  Sociology.     Chapter 

XXXIII. 
HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delinquents.    Part 

IV,  Chapter  III,  IV,  and  VI. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Preventive  Agencies  and  Methods. 
LOWRIE,  D.    My  Life  Out  of  Prison. 
MANGOLD,  G.  B.    Child  Problems.    Book  IV. 
Reports  of  the  National  Conference  on  Charities  and  Correction. 
Reports  of  State  Prison  Associations. 
TAYLOR,  W.  L.     The  Man  Behind  the  Bars. 
TRAVIS,  T.     The  Young  Malefactor. 
WINES,  F.  H.    Reformation  and  Punishment. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

DEFECTIVES  IN  SOCIETY 

I.  Physical  defectives 

1.  The  blind: 

a.  Extent 

b.  Causes 

c.  Treatment: 

(1)  Method 

(2)  Occupations 

2.  The  deaf: 

a.  Extent 

b.  Causes 

c.  Treatment 

3.  The  crippled 

4.  Effects  of  war 

II.  Mental  defectives 

1.  The  insane: 

a.  Extent 

b.  Causes 

c.  Treatment 

2.  Epileptics 

3.  The  feeble-minded: 

a.  Definition  and  extent 

b.  The  three  classes 

c.  Its  hereditary  character 

d.  The  dangers 

e.  Need  of  institutions 

III.  Conclusion 

1.  Social  debtor  classes 

2.  The  future 


499 


500  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Physical  Defectives. — These  divide  themselves  natu- 
rally into  the  blind,  the  deaf,  and  the  crippled.  It  is  difficult 
The  blind:  to  estimate  exactly  the  number  of  the  blind  in 
the  United  States  because  of  the  frequent  classi- 
fication of  the  partially  blind  with  the  totally  blind.  The 
number  of  the  latter  has  been  estimated  at  fifty  thousand. 
The  proportion  of  males  among  the  blind  is  higher  than 
that  of  females  because  many  men  lose  their  vision  through 
explosions  and  other  industrial  accidents.  Almost  half 
the  blind  are  reported  as  being  sixty  years  of  age  or  over. 
It  is  therefore  evident  that  blindness  is  associated  with 
advancing  age  and  with  the  decline  of  physical  vigor. 
For  the  good  of  future  generations  it  is  imperatively 
necessary  that  eyesight  be  properly  safe-guarded.  Greater 
precautions  must  be  taken  in  the  school  room,  the  home, 
the  factory,  and  other  places  of  employment.  The  cor- 
rection of  errors  of  vision  by  the  use  of  glasses  may  be 
preventive  of  future  blindness  and  is  becoming  viewed  as  a 
matter  of  social  as  well  as  of  individual  concern. 

Blindness  from  infancy  is  not  uncommon.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  this  physical  defect  is  due  to  a  disease  known  as 
opthalmia,  an  infant  blindness,  which  has  been 
estimated  to  cause  about  one-tenth  of  all  cases 
of  blindness.  It  often  occurs  in  cases  where  the  parent  is 
diseased,  but  it  may  be  prevented  in  almost  every  instance 
by  washing  the  eyes  of  the  newly-born  babe  in  a  very 
weak  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  This  preventive  measure 
is  rarely  practiced  by  the  ignorant  attendants  at  the  births 
of  many  infants  in  our  poorer  and  immigrant  homes. 
Hence  the  plea  for  the  presence  of  a  physician  at  each 
birth,  and  the  use  of  the  maternity  hospital  for  those  too 
poor  to  pay  for  proper  medical  attendance.  While  con- 


Defectives  in  Society  501 

ditions  of  modern  civilization  are  especially  severe  on  the 
eyes,  the  advance  of  medical  science  may  counteract  the 
tendency  toward  defective  vision.  It  is  by  reason  of  this 
fact  that  the  proportion  of  blind  of  school  age  is  not 
increasing,  but  actually  decreasing,  in  comparison  with  the 
general  increase  of  blindness  in  the  total  population. 

There  are  at  present  about  fifty  schools  for  the  blind  in 
the  United  States,  with  an  approximate  attendance  of 
five  thousand  students.  Schools  for  the  blind  Treatment 
were  first  established  by  private  funds  in  Boston,  ^ bhnd" 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia;  but  various  states  are  now 
making  special  provision  at  public  expense  for  the  educa- 
tion of  this  group  of  unfortunates.  The  course  includes 
the  usual  elementary  branches,  with  special  instruction  in 
reading  and  writing  and  industrial  training.  The  first 
system  of  printing  devised  for  the  blind  was  by  means  of 
raised  letters.  The  system  of  Louis  Braille,  devised  first 
in  1829,  does  not,  however,  use  the  actual  letters  but 
employs  dots.  This  method  possesses  many  advantages 
over  the  earlier  system.  In  a  number  of  public  schools  in 
our  larger  cities  special  classes  for  the  blind  are  main- 
tained. This  arrangement  does  not  necessitate  their 
leaving  home,  permanently,  to  live  in  a  distant  institution. 
It  is  necessary  that  parents  educate  their  blind  children, 
for  the  census  reported  that  nearly  one-half  of  them  were 
not  in  attendance  at  any  school.  It  is  surprising  to  learn 
how  much  can  be  done  by  scientific  educational  training 
to  make  blind  children,  who  are  still  in  the  formative 
period,  independent  and  self-reliant.  Other  faculties  can 
be  trained  to  do  a  large  part  of  the  work  ordinarily  done 
by  the  eyes.  When  blindness  occurs,  the  sense  of  touch 
becomes  highly  developed.  But  the  treatment  of  the  blind 


502  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

is  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion 
suffer  from  other  defects  as  well.  A  study  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Institution  for  the  Blind  revealed,  for  example, 
that  forty-five  per  cent  of  the  girls  and  thirty-six  per  cent 
of  the  boys  had  indications  of  curvature  of  the  spine. 
In  weight,  height,  and  lung  capacity  they  were  also  below 
the  normal.  Physical  exercise,  especially  of  a  corrective 
nature,  is  imperatively  needed. 

Industrial  education  must  also  be  emphasized.  Manual 
training  is  taught  the  blind,  as  well  as  handicrafts,  like 
chair-caning,  broom-making,  and  carpet-weaving.  Employ- 
ment is  necessary  to  keep  the  blind  from  dwelling  upon  their 
misfortune  and  from  becoming  morbid  and  melancholy. 
A  second  and  equally  important  reason  for  occupation  is 
the  necessity  for  securing  economic  independence.  The 
blind  beggar  upon  the  street  is  not  only  a  pathetic  figure, 
but  often  a  cause  of  misdirected  charity,  injurious  to 
himself  as  well  as  to  the  community.  The  number  of 
blind  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  is  encouraging,  and 
the  state  should  deliberately  foster  the  movement.  Several 
states  have  established  special  workshops  for  the  blind, 
where  they  can  find  certain  types  of  work  adapted  to  their 
abilities.  Special  employment  agencies  are  on  the  lookout 
for  positions  which  they  can  creditably  fill.  The  adult 
who  becomes  blind  in  mature  years,  through  accident  or 
loss  of  physical  vigor,  is  the  most  unfortunate  of  this 
entire  group,  for  a  complete  readjustment  is  necessary  in 
his  case.  New  York  City  has  adopted  a  system  of  giving 
pensions  to  the  adult  blind  as  a  subsidy  to  those  who  are 
trying  to  become  self-supporting. 

In  addition  to  the  blind,  the  deaf  and  the  dumb  constitute 
two  other  classes  of  physical  defectives.  Some  unfortunates, 


Defectives  in  Society  503 

like  the  celebrated  Helen  Keller,  possess  all  three  defects. 
The  inability  to  speak,  however,  has  been  found  in  a 
number  of  cases  not  to  be  due  to  any  defect  in  The  deaf: 
the  brain  or  speech  organs.  Deaf  mutes  are  ExiffnL 
often  unable  to  speak,  or  are  forced  to  speak  imperfectly, 
because  of  their  inability  to  hear.  Many  have  never 
learned  to  talk  merely  because  of  a  lack  of  opportunity  to 
hear  themselves  and  others  speak.  About  five  per  cent 
of  the  deaf  are  also  feeble-minded  and  should  be  placed  in 
institutions  for  the  latter  rather  than  for  the  former. 
There  are  apparently  more  deaf  than  blind  in  the  United 
States.  So  many  degrees  of  deafness  exist,  that  it  is  even 
harder  to  estimate  exactly  the  number  of  deaf  than  to 
approximate  the  number  of  the  blind.  In  round  numbers, 
the  sum  total  approaches  one  hundred  thousand  and  does 
not  seem  to  be  decreasing  in  proportion  to  the  total  popu- 
lation, as  does  the  number  of  blind.  Of  the  total  number, 
about  one-fourth  are  reported  as  being  totally  devoid  of 
the  power  of  speech.  What  proportion  of  these  are  really 
dumb  and  what  proportion  have  simply  never  learned  to 
speak  because  of  their  deafness  cannot  be  ascertained. 

There  are  numerous  causes  of  deafness,  but  the  most 
common  are,  perhaps,  accident  and  disease.  Adults  are 
often  attacked  by  catarrhal  colds  and  diseases  causes  of 
of  the  ear.  In  the  young  scarlet  fever,  menin-  ' 
gitis,  and  adenoids  stand  out  conspicuously  as  causes  of 
deafness.  A  third  cause  may  be  found  in  geographical 
environment.  The  mountainous  country  of  Switzerland 
has  a  high  de.af  rate,  while  the  low  country  of  the  Nether- 
lands has  a  lower  one.  This  may,  however,  be  due  to  other 
than  geographical  causes.  Blindness  is  also  higher  in 
bright  desert  lands  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  intense. 


504  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

The  multitude  of  blind  beggars  in  the  Orient  may,  how- 
ever, also  be  due  to  the  lack  of  medical  knowledge  and  of 
scientific  treatment.  A  fourth  cause  of  deafness  is  hered- 
ity, although  the  exact  part  played  by  this  factor  is  dif- 
ficult to  ascertain.  The  marriage  of  deaf  people,  with 
whom  deafness  is  inherent  and  not  merely  acquired,  will 
often  result  in  deaf  children.  About  one-fifth  of  all  the 
deaf  are  born  deaf,  and  a  large  proportion  of  these  come 
from  totally  or  partially  deaf  parents.  A  fifth  cause  may 
lie  in  consanguineous  marrage,  that  is,  in  marriage  between 
near  relatives.  Thus  the  Jews,  who  permit  the  marriage 
of  cousins,  have  an  unusually  high  rate  of  deafness.  It 
has  been  stated  that  four  per  cent  of  the  deaf  are  the 
offspring  of  consanguineous  marriages.  Near  relatives  are 
apt  to  possess  a  somewhat  similar  heredity.  If  defective 
hearing  should  exist  in  both  parents,  this  physical  handicap 
will  be  intensified  in  the  child  who  draws  his  heredity  from 
both.  There  is  little,  however,  to  prove  that  consanguin- 
eous marriage  is,  in  itself,  a  cause  of  deafness,  provided  the 
defect  does  not  exist  in  parental  heredity. 

The  education  of  the  deaf  is  highly  important  because, 
as  we  have  seen,  many  present  the  possibility  of  being 
Treatment  of  taught  to  speak.  When  the  speech  organs  or 
brain  centers  are  defective,  the  sign  language 
may  be  utilized  as  a  method  of  communication.  For  those 
who  are  merely  deaf  and  have  the  ability  to  speak,  the 
reading  of  the  lips  of  the  speaker  will  enable  the  conver- 
sation to  be  followed.  The  ability  to  understand  what  is 
being  said  by  watching  the  lips  of  the  speaker  is  now  being 
taught,  and  the  facility  of  the  deaf  in  this  respect  is  some- 
times marvelous.  It  is  naturally  easier  for  the  deaf  to 
pursue  higher  education  than  for  the  blind,  and  for  this 


Defectives  in  Society  505 

reason  Columbia  Institute  at  Washington  offers  them 
collegiate  work.  There  is  a  special  agency  for  collecting 
and  diffusing  knowledge  concerning  the  deaf  in  America. 
It  is  known  as  the  Volta  Bureau  and  was  endowed  by  Dr. 
Alexander  Graham  Bell  with  the  money  awarded  him  by 
the  French  Government  for  the  invention  of  the  telephone. 
Certain  large  cities  have  day  classes  for  the  deaf,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  state  institutions.  Like  similar  classes  for  the 
blind,  they  possess  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  children 
to  live  in  their  homes  and  to  mingle  with  other  normal 
children.  Industrial  training  is  important  for  their  eco- 
nomic independence.  The  number  of  occupations  open  to 
the  deaf  is  far  in  excess  of  those  open  to  the  blind,  and  as 
a  result,  most  of  the  former  may  become  entirely  or  par- 
tially self-supporting. 

Certain  physical  deformities  exist  from  birth  due  at  times 
to  hereditary  causes.  A  large  number  are  cripples  because 
of  accidents.  In  the  case  of  industrial  acci-  The 
dents,  the  crippled  should  be  beneficiaries  of  criPPled- 
some  type  of  social  insurance.  Often  they  can  become 
self-supporting.  As  with  the  two  other  groups  of  physical 
defectives,  special  preference  should  be  shown  them  in 
filling  positions  within  their  capabilities.  Railroads,  for 
example,  often  give  such  positions  as  flagman  to  men 
crippled  in  their  service.  The  aim  should  be  to  prevent 
the  crippled  from  becoming  beggars  on  the  streets.  Fre- 
quently they  evade  the  law  by  becoming  venders  of  small 
articles,  which  the  "purchaser"  seldom  takes.  Crippled 
peddlers  should  not  be  allowed  to  trade  upon  their  mis- 
fortunes. This  is  as  demoralizing  to  themselves  as  to  the 
community.  It  may  also  lead  to  the  feigning  of  injuries 
to  excite  the  pity  and  generosity  of  the  passer-by.  Per- 


506  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

sonal  interest,  not  merely  a  financial  contribution,  will 
accomplish  the  best  social  results.  The  local  charity  agent 
will  strive  to  find  honorable  positions  for  such  unfortunates 
and  will  look  after  them  until  they  become  self-supporting. 
In  cases  of  very  serious  injury,  when  they  have  no  income 
or  relatives  capable  of  supporting  them,  the  crippled  should 
become  inmates  of  a  special  home  for  incurables. 

The  World  War  took  an  unprecedented  toll  of  human 
life.  Excluding  the  women,  children,  and  aged,  who  per- 
Effects  ished  of  famine  and  starvation  in  the  devastated 
regions,  the  total  number  of  soldiers  killed  in  the 
belligerent  nations  was  not  far  from  ten  millions.  The 
wounded  in  any  army  are  usually  in  excess  of  the  num- 
ber killed.  Until  the  present  generation  passes  away, 
therefore,  Europe  will  have  a  great  proportion  of  its  male 
population  made  up  of  the  crippled.  Since  American  par- 
ticipation in  the  war  was  shorter,  the  number  of  killed  and 
wounded  was  correspondingly  less.  To  meet  this  situa- 
tion, instead  of  the  former  pension  system,  the  federal 
government  inaugurated  an  excellent  system  of  social 
insurance.  Cheap  life  insurance  policies  could  be  obtained 
by  the  men  at  enlistment.  Special  legislation  provided 
compensation  for  those  who  were  injured,  as  well  as  for 
the  dependents  of  those  who  lost  their  lives.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  plans  for  the  rehabilitation  of  the  soldiers  were 
considered.  Modern  medical  science  was  called  upon  for 
the  physical  reconstruction  of  the  sick  and  injured.  The 
mental  side  was  also  emphasized.  Duly  qualified  men  were 
sent  to  technical  schools  and  colleges.  The  government 
gave  vocational  training  and  taught  illiterates  to  read  and 
write.  The  aim  was  to  make  the  injured  men  as  nearly 
self-supporting  as  possible.  Nothing  in  this  entire  pro- 


Defectives  in  Society  507 

gram  was  considered  as  charity,  but  merely  as  the  best 
efforts  of  an  enlightened  modern  democracy  to  do  what 
it  could  for  those  who  fought  for  its  preservation.  The 
same  fine  spirit  which  won  the  war  stimulated  the  injured 
veterans  in  their  quiet  but  heroic  struggle  for  economic 
independence. 

Mental  Defectives. — It  has  been  estimated  that  there 
are  about  a  half  million  mental  defectives  in  the  United 
States.  Of  these,  about  two  hundred  thousand  The 
fall  within  the  various  groups  included  under  insane: 
the  general  term  insane.  The  annual  cost  of 
the  care  of  these  insane  has  been  estimated  to  equal  the 
sum  expended  annually  on  the  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  This  expenditure  seems  to  be  increasing  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  America.  The  increase  in  both  the  amount 
and  the  cost  of  insanity  must,  however,  be  somewhat  dis- 
counted because  many  cases  of  insanity,  formerly  concealed, 
are  now  being  disclosed  and  cared  for  in  public  institutions. 
Again,  since  the  lives  of  the  insane  are  being  preserved  by 
modern  medical  science,  there  is  a  natural  increase  in  the 
total  number  of  insane  patients.  The  cases  show  a  slight 
excess  of  males  over  females,  and  a  decided  excess  of  adults 
over  the  young. 

Among    the    various    interrelated    causes    of   insanity, 
hereditary  predisposition  may  first  be  mentioned .  Although 
insanity  may  seem  to  run  in  families,  its  relation   causes  of 
to  heredity  is  not  so  clearly  established  as  is   msamty- 
that  of  feeble-mindedness.     It  would  seem  that  insanity  is ' 
more  an  acquired  characteristic  than  an  inherent  one. 
A  mental  weakness  or  instability  may  be  inherent  in 
certain  family  stocks  and,  under  pressure  of  circumstances, 
an  individual  of  such  ancestry  is  more  apt  to  become 


508  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

insane  than  one  who  has  inherited  a  sounder  and  stronger 
mental  constitution.  We  have  said  that  tuberculosis  was 
not  hereditary,  but  that  weak  lungs  were.  Similarly,  it  is 
the  neurotic  taint  or  the  predisposition  toward  mental 
disorder  that  may  result  in  insanity,  epilepsy,  or  some 
other  mental  disease.  A  second  cause  of  insanity  is 
immorality,  which  produces  terrible  diseases  leading  to 
insanity.  Children  of  parents  suffering  from  such  diseases 
are  more  likely  to  be  mental  defectives  than  those  of 
healthy  parentage.  Again,  immorality  and  its  resultant 
diseases  may  produce  mental  disorders  in  the  individual 
himself.  Softening  of  the  brain  and  insanity  often  follow 
in  later  life  as  a  result  of  physical  excesses.  Alcoholism  is 
another  important  cause  of  insanity,  which  may  appear 
either  in  the  individual  guilty  of  such  excess  or  in  his 
offspring.  Again,  fracture  of  the  skull,  bone  pressure, 
blood  clots,  and  lesions  of  the  brain  may  result  in  insanity. 
Finally,  bad  mental  habits  may  be  the  cause  of  an  unbal- 
anced mind.  Worry,  shock,  fright,  overwork,  severe 
mental  strain  and  anxiety  are  frequent  causes  of  insanity, 
particularly  when  the  mind  is  not  naturally  strong. 

In  ancient  times  the  insane  were  regarded  as  possessed 
by  devils.  Their  incoherent  statements  were  sometimes 
Treatment  of  considered  prophetic  utterances,  and  their  wild 
me'  actions  ascribed  to  supernatural  influences. 
In  recent  tunes,  and  upon  American  soil,  mental  defectives 
have  occasionally  been  burned  or  hanged  as  witches. 
'Lunatics  have  often  been  put  in  prison  and  in  chains  for 
safe  keeping.  Modern  science,  however,  insists  upon 
medical  treatment  for  the  insane  in  addition  to  detention. 
If  such  cases  are  treated  as  soon  as  signs  of  mental  disorder 
manifest  themselves,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  effect  a 


Defectives  in  Society  509 

cure.  Insanity  may  take  such  diverse  forms  as  melan- 
cholia, paranoia,  or  hysteria.  The  monomaniac  is  the 
individual  whose  mind  is  unbalanced  in  one  direction, 
while  the  maniac  is  one  whose  mind  does  not  function 
properly  upon  any  subject.  Many  asylums  group  their 
patients  according  to  ease  of  administration.  The  noisy 
patients,  the  filthy,  and  the  orderly  are  the  usual  dis- 
tinctions. The  insane  of  wealthy  families  may  secure 
proper  treatment  in  numerous  private  asylums,  but 
insane  paupers  generally  receive  inadequate  care.  Many 
are  kept  in  the  almshouse  in  special  cells  and  little  attempt 
is  made  at  curative  treatment.  Some  insane  are  still 
confined  in  jails  and  prisons.  A  good  working  classifica- 
tion of  insane  patients  is  that  of  acute  and  chronic  cases. 
For  the  chronic  cases  kindly  custodial  care  is  needed,  but 
for  the  acute  cases  medical  treatment  may  result  in  con- 
siderable improvement.  Persons  afflicted  with  a  mental 
malady  will  often  recover,  if  at  all,  within  the  first  year. 
Hence  the  need  of  haste  and  the  necessity  for  individual 
and  personal  attention.  There  is  little  definite  knowledge 
of  permanent  cures  for  these  obscure  mental  maladies,  but 
much  has  been  accomplished  by  the  use  of  massage,  baths 
of  various  kinds,  electricity,  varied  diet,  and  general 
mental  and  physical  rehabilitation. 

Epileptics  must  be  treated  as  a  special  class  of  mental 
defectives.  Epilepsy  itself  is  a  little  understood  malady, 
the  causes  of  which  are  very  obscure.  The 

J  Epileptics.    - 

ordinary  manifestations  of  the  disease  are  con- 
vulsions, of  greater  or  less  severity,  at  varying  intervals. 
The  lives  of  many  otherwise  intelligent  and  useful  people 
are  overshadowed  by  a  dread  of  these  terrible  attacks. 
Many   feeble-minded,    however,    are   also    epileptic,    and 


510  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

epilepsy  is  a  common  trait  of  criminals.  About  half  the 
children  of  epileptic  parents  are  epileptic,  and  nearly  all 
the  other  half  show  serious  defects  of  different  kinds. 
It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  society  to  discourage  the  prop- 
agation of  such  people.  Special  provision  should  be 
made  for  their  custody;  for  the  public  care  of  epileptics  in 
America  is  most  deficient.  They  are  either  left  at  large  or 
are  placed  in  almshouses  and  insane  asylums,  in  neither  of 
which  institutions  are  they  properly  cared  for.  Special 
colonies  should  be  founded  for  epileptics,  who  need  a 
quiet  outdoor  life,  a  careful  diet,  and  mental  and  physical 
occupation  in  agreeable  surroundings. 

Feeble-mindedness  must  be  distinguished  from  insanity. 

The  insane  suffer  from  a  cessation  of  the  normal  working 

of  the  mind;  the  feeble-minded  from  an  unde- 

The  feeble-         , 

minded:  veloped  mentality.  The  brain  of  the  insane 
andnextent.  represents  a  broken  or  impaired  mental  machin- 
ery, while  that  of  the  feeble-minded  has  been  of 
low  caliber  from  childhood.  An  adult  whose  intelligence 
has  been  normal  may  become  insane  in  later  life,  but  the 
feeble-minded  are  generally  such  from  birth.  They  have 
inherited  a  low-grade  mentality.  Again,  an  insane  per- 
son may  have  all  his  faculties,  but  they  have  ceased  to 
work  in  unison.  On  the  other  hand,  the  feeble-minded 
individual  has  been  born  with  some  faculties  lacking. 
The  number  of  the  feeble-minded  is  alarmingly  great. 
Conservative  estimates  made  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  fix  a  proportion  of  one  feeble-minded  to 
every  three  hundred  of  the  population.  The  grades  of 
mentality  shade  so  gradually  from  the  normal  to  the  sub- 
normal, that  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  even  approximately 
the  number  of  feeble-minded.  It  is  certain  however  that 


Defectives  in  Society  511 

there  are  more  feeble-minded  than  insane  persons.  Dr. 
Ooddard  places  the  number  in  the  United  States  at  three 
or  four  hundred  thousand. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  fix  the  standard  of  intelli- 
gence for  each  year  of  mental  development  in  the  life  of 
the  average  child  by  the  system  of  Binet  tests.  The  three 
This  provides  a  long  series  of  questions  for  each  classes- 
year  of  childhood.  Their  character  is  practical,  and  the 
subjects  are  chosen  from  the  child's  every  day  experience. 
They  become  more  difficult  and  require  more  thought  for 
each  advancing  year.  On  the  basis  of  satisfactory  answers 
to  the  majority  of  the  questions  in  each  series,  a  child's 
mentality  is  classified  as,  for  example,  that  of  a  normal 
eight  year  old  or  that  of  a  ten  year  old.  Since  psychological 
or  mental  experiments  are  never  so  exact  as  those  of  physical 
science,  the  results  of  the  Binet  tests  of  mentality  cannot 
be  regarded  as  absolute.  By  such  a  general  scheme,  how- 
ever, the  feeble-minded  are  classified  according  to  their 
mental  age,  irrespective  of  their  actual  age.  Of  these, 
there  are  three  groups — idiots,  imbeciles,  and  "morons." 
A  mentality  equal  to  that  of  a  normal  child  of  two  years 
belongs  to  the  idiot  class.  These  cannot  care  for  them- 
selves, nor  learn  to  speak,  and  many  are  physically 
deformed  and  misshapen.  Since  they  are  generally  short- 
lived and  cannot  reproduce,  this  class  is  not  self-perpetuat- 
ing. The  group  whose  mentality  may  advance  further, 
but  is  limited  to  that  of  a  normal  eight  year  old  child,  con- 
stitutes the  imbecile  class.  Members  of  this  group  may 
live  to  maturity,  but  their  mentality,  actions,  and  conduct 
will  be  those  of  a  young  child.  The  "moron"  represents 
the  mental  ability  of  normal  children  between  eight  and 
twelve  years  of  age.  This  is  the  most  dangerous  group 


512  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

because  it  so  nearly  approximates  the  normal.  These 
"morons"  mingle  with  the  rest  of  the  world  unnoticed 
by  the  casual  observer.  The  dangers  arising  from  these 
child-adults  in  society  will  be  discussed  later. 

Although  vice  and  alcoholism  sometimes  produce  feeble- 
mindedness, the  condition  itself  is  generally  due  to  hered- 
itary causes.     While  it  is  true  that  this  taint 

Its 

hereditary       may  pass  over  certain  individuals  and   even 

character.  .  •11 

generations,  feeble-mmdedness  nevertheless  runs 
in  families.  A  law  of  heredity,  known  from  its  dis- 
coverer as  Mendel's  law,  throws  some  light  upon  the  pro- 
portion of  feeble-minded  offspring  born  of  the  union  of  a 
normal  person  with  one  who  is  feeble-minded.  The  mating 
of  two  feeble-minded  persons,  however,  seems  certain  to 
produce  feeble-minded  offspring.  It  would  thus  appear 
that  feeble-mindedness  is  not  usually  an  acquired  trait, 
but  is  generally  inherent  in  the  germ  cell.  The  hereditary 
character  of  feeble-mindedness  may  be  clearly  shown  by 
a  study  of  various  families  like  the  Kallikaks,  the  Pineys, 
the  Ishmaelites,  and  the  Smoky  Pilgrims.  Here  it  is  seen 
to  persist  in  particular  families  and  to  be  widespread  in 
certain  isolated  localities,  where  these  defectives  have 
propagated  their  kind.  From  such  studies  it  is  evident 
that  considerably  over  half  the  number  of  cases  of  feeble- 
mindedness are  hereditary.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that 
some  feeble-mindedness,  like  the  " Mongolian"  type,  has 
appeared  in  families  whose  heredity  fails  to  furnish  any 
feeble-minded  ancestry. 

A  very  small  proportion  of  the  feeble-minded  are  con- 
fined in  institutions.  The  vast  majority  of  these  physical 
adults  with  childish  minds  are  at  large  in  society  and  a  con- 
stant menace  to  its  welfare.  They  react  easily  to  sug- 


Defectives  in  Society  513 

gestion,  for  inhibition  or  restraint  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
adult  mind.  The  feeble-minded  naturally  find  it  difficult 
to  compete  with  those  of  normal  intelligence,  The 
and  a  larger  number  are  the  recipients  of  dangers- 
charity  or  find  their  way  into  the  poor-house.  Possessing 
the  physical  strength  of  adults,  they  become,  through  their 
mental  deficiency,  a  constant  source  of  delinquency. 
Indeed,  many  are  moral  imbeciles  incapable  of  distin- 
guishing right  from  wrong.  Out  of  six  hundred  children 
appearing  before  a  Chicago  Juvenile  Court,  twenty-six  per 
cent  were  feeble-minded.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
inmates  of  reformatories  and  prisons  also  belong  to  this 
class.  Dr.  Goddard  places  the  proportion  of  feeble- 
minded in  our  almshpuses  at  about  one-half  and  gives  the 
same  ratio  for  the  criminal  class.  Again,  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  immo- 
rality among  women  is  due  to  feeble-mindedness.  The  cost 
to  the  state  in  crime  and  pauperism  of  the  feeble-minded 
would  justify  the  expenditure  of  a  large  sum  of  money  for 
their  custodial  care.  If  they  are  permitted  at  large,  they 
will  continue  to  reproduce  their  kind  and  to  lower  the  aver- 
age level  of  intelligence  throughout  society.  This  is  the 
great  danger  of  the  moron  group,  who  closely  approximate 
the  physical  normal,  but  who  transmit  the  hereditary  taint 
of  feeble-mindedness  to  their  offspring. 

If  society  ever  expects  to  reduce  the  number  of  these 
defectives,  the  need  of  custodial  care  for  the  feeble-minded 
is  imperative.     They  must  be  segregated  and   Need  of 
prevented  from  mating.     This  course  is  best   institutions- 
suited  to  their  own  real  happiness  because  they  delight  in 
the  amusements  and  toys  of  childhood.     They  take  pleas- 
ure in  playing  with  other  children  of  the  same  mental  age. 
HH 


5 14  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

In  this  manner,  they  would  no  longer  be  exploited  or 
tempted  by  those  of  mature  intelligence.  Little  hope, 
however,  can  be  held  out  for  their  ultimate  advancement. 
Feeble-mindedness  is  apparently  incurable.  Nothing  can 
be  done  for  idiots  except  to  satisfy  their  physical  wants. 
The  imbecile  group  do  not  need  so  much  attention  and  may 
be  taught  to  care  for  themselves.  The  "morons,"  how- 
ever, are  capable  of  receiving  an  education  equivalent  to 
that  of  children  of  corresponding  mental  age.  Manual 
training  may  teach  them  to  use  their  hands  productively. 
Few  states  have  met  the  problem  of  the  feeble-minded  by 
providing  for  their  permanent  custodial  care  in  special 
institutions.  Indeed,  there  are  not  nearly  enough  such 
institutions  to  care  for  this  defective  group.  The  institu- 
tion for  the  feeble-minded  at  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  is 
deserving  of  special  mention,  for  here  Dr.  Goddard  has 
carried  on  his  valuable  investigations. 

Conclusion. — The  last  five  chapters  have  dealt  with 
social  groups  which  present  peculiar  difficulties  in  a  demo- 
Sociai  cratic  society.  They  are  all  sub-normal.  All 

classes  act  as  ^  ^n(^rance  to  social  progress  and  con- 
stitute a  large  part  of  the  general  problem  of 
social  adjustment.  They  are  conveniently  designated  the 
social  debtor  classes  and  comprise  the  dependents,  the 
delinquents,  and  the  defectives.  The  causes  of  their 
deficiency  have  been  seen  to  lie  both  in  social  environment 
and  in  individual  heredity.  In  order  to  eliminate  malad- 
justments, the  environment — both  economic  and  social- 
must  be  transformed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  individual. 
Adverse  environing  conditions  must  be  so  changed  that 
individual  abnormality  may  be  removed  wherever  possible. 
"An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure"  is  as 


Defectives  in  Society  515 

true  of  social  ills  as  of  bodily  ailments.  Poverty  and 
crime  must  be  prevented  rather  than  cured,  and  conditions 
giving  rise  to  defectives  must  be  as  largely  as  possible 
eliminated. 

In  considering  the  future  of  these  unfortunates,  individual 
heredity  must  be  considered  as  well  as  social  environment. 
Democracy  has  already  begun  the  work  of  adjust-  The 
ment.  Charity  is  being  organized,  almshouses  future* 
improved,  and  prison  systems  reformed.  But  what  is  being 
done  to  improve  the  race  biologically?  The  solution  of 
many  social  problems  depends  not  only  upon  the  progress 
of  ideas,  the  psychological  factor,  but  also  upon  the  physi- 
cal improvement  of  man,  the  biological  factor.  From  this 
point  of  view,  a  sound  physical  heredity  is  as  important  to 
the  success  of  democracy  as  a  good  social  environment. 
Eugenics  may  be  denned  as  the  science  of  the  biological 
improvement  of  the  race.  Because  man  in  the  past  has 
grown  up  haphazardly,  is  there  no  reason  for  supposing 
that  conscious  measures  may  not  be  taken  for  his  deliberate 
biological  improvement?  To  be  sure,  extremists  have 
brought  this  idea  into  disrepute  by  their  radical  suggestions. 
But  all  students  of  society  agree  that  a  rational  application 
of  eugenic  principles  will  not  only  result  in  race  improve- 
ment, but  that  such  application  is  imperatively  needed  for 
certain  classes  in  American  society.  For  example,  it  is 
undoubtedly  the  duty  of  society  to  prevent  the  propagation 
of  inherently  degenerate  biological  stocks,  like  the  feeble- 
minded, whose  deficiency  is  hereditary.  As  society 
advances,  it  is  hoped. that  its  eugenic  standards  will  be 
raised. 


5 1 6  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  extent  of  blindness  in  the  Unitol 
states.     Is  it  increasing? 

2.  Describe  any  school  for  the  blind  that  you  have  seen.     Name 
any  in  your  community. 

3.  What  lines  of  training  are  especially  needed  for  the  blind? 

4.  Give  the  extent  and  causes  of  deafness  in  American  society. 

5.  Explain  the  role  of  heredity  in  producing  deafness. 

6.  Why  is  the  inability  to  speak  so  common  in  the  deaf? 

7.  What  should  be  society's  attitude  toward,  and  treatment  of, 
its  crippled  members? 

8.  What  should  you,  as  an  individual,  do  for  the  crippled  beggar 
on  the  street? 

9.  Discuss  the  extent  of  insanity  in  the  United  States. 

10.  Discuss  the  causes  of  insanity. 

11.  Is  insanity  hereditary?    Explain  fully. 

12.  How  were  the  insane  regarded  and  treated  in  former  times? 

13.  What  progress  has  been  made  in  caring  for  them? 

14.  What  improvements  are  needed  to-day? 

15.  What  should  society  do  for  the  group  of  epileptics? 

1 6.  Contrast  feeble-mindedness  with  insanity. 

17.  Discuss  the  extent  of  feeble-mindedness  in  the  United  States. 

18.  Describe  the  three  groups  of  the  feeble-minded. 

19.  Show  the  hereditary  character  of  feeble-mindedness. 

20.  What  are  the  dangers  arising  from  the  feeble-minded  when  at 
large  in  society? 

21.  Can  feeble-mindedness  be  cured?    Why  or  why  not? 

22.  To  what  extent  may  the  feeble-minded  be  taught? 

23.  What  is  the  duty  of  society  regarding  the  feeble-minded? 

24.  What  are  the  three  groups  of  social  debtors? 

25.  What  should  be  the  attitude  of  society  toward  the  individual 
social  debtor? 

26.  What  should  be  the  keynote  of  social  reform  in  this  direction? 

27.  From  what  different  points  of  view  may  the  problem  be 
attacked?    Explain  each. 


Defectives  in  Society  517 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Opthalmia  or  infant  blindness. 

2.  Industrial  training  for  the  blind. 

3.  Teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  to  speak. 

4.  Civilization  and  insanity. 

5.  Education  of  the  feeble-minded. 

6.  The  provision  made  by  the  laws  of  your  state  for  the  care  of 
defectives. 

7.  The  work  of  some  local  institution  for  any  group  of  defectives. 

8.  The  program  of  the  United  States  for  the  rehabilitation  of 
crippled  soldiers. 

9.  The  future  of  society  from  the  standpoint  of  eugenics. 

10.  The  relative  importance  of  the  ever-present  factors  of  heredity 
and  environment  in  race  improvement. 

1 1 .  The  treatment  of  defectives  in  Sparta. 

REFERENCES 

BEST,  H.    The  Blind;  The  Deaf. 
DAVENPORT,  C.  B.     Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics. 
GODDARD,  H.  H.     Feeble-Mindedness. 
GODDARD,  H.  H.     The  Kallikak  Family. 

HENDERSON,  C.  R.    Dependents,  Defectives  and  Delinquents.    Part  III. 
SMITH,  S.  G.     Social  Pathology. 

United  States  Census  Reports  on  the  Blind,  the  Deaf,  the  Insane 
and  Feeble-Minded. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  MODERN  FAMILY 

I.  The  family  as  a  social  institution 

1.  Its  importance 

2.  Functions: 

a.  Primary 

b.  Secondary 
II.  Marriage  relations 

1.  Early  peoples 

2.  The  Romans 

3.  Marriage  a  sacrament 

4.  Marriage  a  civil  contract 

III.  Divorce  in  the  United  States 

1.  Marriage  laws  in  the  United  States 

2.  The  rapid  increase  of  divorce 

3.  Comparison  with  Europe 

4.  Distribution  of  divorce: 

a.  Geographical 

b.  Urban  influence 

c.  Race 

d.  Nativity 

e.  Religious  belief 
/.   Other  facts 

5.  Legal  grounds  for  divorce 

IV.  Causes  of  the  increase  of  divorce 
i.  Economic  changes: 

a.  Modern  industrialism 

b.  Economic  emancipation  of  women 

c.  Higher  standards  of  living 

d.  City  life 

sis 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  519 

2.  Social  progress : 

a.  Rise  of  individualism 

b.  The  Woman's  Movement 

c.  Popularization  of  education  and  law 

d.  Moral  and  religious  changes 
V.  The  outlook 

1.  National  Congress  on  Uniform  Divorce  Laws 

2.  Work  of  religious  bodies 

3.  Remedies: 

a.  Legal 

b.  Educational 

4.  A  problem  of  adjustment 

So  far  in  our  treatment  of  problems  of  American  Democ- 
racy, we  have  discussed  questions  of  general  importance 
to  government,  industry,  and  society.  We  have  not  yet 
examined,  however,  certain  specific  problems  which  relate 
directly  to  the  three  remaining  social  institutions — the 
family,  the  school,  and  the  Church.  The  family  is  rightly 
regarded  as  the  most  fundamental  institution  of  society; 
and  yet,  even  this  institution  is,  to-day,  undergoing 
important  changes.  In  fact,  not  only  the  family,  but  the 
school,  as  expressed  in  public  education,  and  the  Church, 
as  evidenced  by  social  morality,  are  affected  by  the  process 
of  democratic  readjustment  that  is  taking  place  throughout 
the  progressive,  civilized  world.  Accordingly,  in  the 
remaining  chapters,  we  shall  discuss,  first,  the  instability  of 
modern  family  life;  secondly,  the  trend  of  public  education 
in  a  democracy;  and,  thirdly,  the  present  tendencies  in 
moral  progress. 

The  Family  as  a  Social  Institution. — The  primary 
and  most  important  social  institution  is  the  family. 
Indeed,  the  family  may  be  regarded  as  a  miniature  society. 


520  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

Since  it  contains  both  sexes,  it  is  capable  of  reproducing 
itself;  and,  since  it  includes  all  ages,  it  contains  the 
Itsim-  various  social  relationships  illustrated  by  the 
portance.  authority  of  the  father  and  the  obedience  of  the 
children.  We  may  call  it  the  primary  form  of  association 
from  which  developed  later  institutions.  Thus  the  first 
industrial  society  was  the  family.  In  savage  society,  the 
father  goes  upon  the  hunt,  while  the  mother  builds  the  hut 
and  prepares  the  food  and  makes  the  clothing.  The  family 
of  the  frontiersman  of  our  own  day  is  a  practically  indepen- 
dent economic  unit,  providing  for  itself  most  of  the  necessary 
articles  and  utensils,  as  well  as  food  and  clothing.  Again, 
religious  life  has  centered  and  still  should  center  in  the 
family.  The  patriarchal  father  was  the  first  high  priest, 
and  the  hearth-fire  the  seat  of  the  earliest  religious  devo- 
tions. The  child's  earliest  education  is  obtained  at  his 
mother's  knee,  and  the  institution  of  the  school  continues 
the  work  already  begun  by  the  family.  Finally,  govern- 
ment and  the  institution  of  the  State  had  their  roots  in  the 
institution  of  the  family.  The  patriarch  Abraham  was  a 
tribal  chief,  and  the  Roman  pater  familias  who  ruled  his 
family  was  responsible  to  the  State  for  the  conduct  of  the 
members  of  his  household. 

The  primary  function  of  the  family  is  the  biological  one 
of  reproduction,  the  perpetuation  of  the  human  species, 
itsfunc-  Tne  industrial  function  of  the  family  has,  for 

^  m°St  Pait)  ^^  1OSt;  f°r  Production  to-day 

has  gone  from  the  home  into  the  huge  factory. 
Again,  the  school  and  the  various  church  organizations 
have  become  modern  substitutes  for  the  educational  and 
religious  life  of  the  family.  But  no  social  changes  can 
undermine  its  primary  biological  function— the  birth  of 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  521 

offspring.  The  family  is  the  social  institution  which  pro- 
duces new  individuals  for  society  and  cares  for  them  until 
maturity.  Thus,  the  primary  function  of  the  family  is  to 
transmit  physical  life  from  generation  to  generation.  This 
function  is  as  permanent  as  the  human  race  itself. 

There  is  also  a  secondary  function  of  the  family,  namely, 
the  transmission  of  social  possessions  from  generation  to 
generation.  These  may  be  material  possessions,  Secondary 
such  as  property  and  wealth,  or  the  spiritual  functwn- 
possessions  of  the  race,  such  as  the  mother  tongue  and 
ideals  of  government  and  religion.  The  transmission  of 
these  possessions  we  sometimes  call  the  process  of  socializa- 
tion. This  secondary  function  of  the  family  is  to  fit  the 
individual  for  the  larger  life  of  society.  It  is  to  prepare 
for  citizenship  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word.  This 
duty  is  at  present  in  grave  danger  of  being  neglected, 
unless  the  Church  and  the  school  come  to  the  rescue  of  the 
family.  For  example,  the  school  must  not  only  enlarge 
its  curriculum  to  include  work  in  the  social  sciences,  but  it 
must  also  introduce  courses  in  domestic  science  and  in 
vocational  training,  in  order  to  give  that  preparation  for 
later  life  which  was  formerly  given  in  the  home.  The 
Sunday  School  has  come  into  being  to  give  moral  and 
religious  training  to  many  boys  and  girls  who  would  never 
receive  such  instruction  at  home. 

Marriage  Relations. — Not  only  are  the  beginnings  of 
the  present  monogamic  family  found  among  the  most 
primitive  peoples,  but  its  rudimentary  germs   Early 
may  even  be  traced  back  to  the  simple  pairing   Pe°PleS0 
system  of  the  higher  animals.     Thus,  the  present  form  of 
the  family  rests  upon  thousands  of  years  of  evolution,  and 
its  ultimate  stability  will  not  be  endangered  by  one  short 


522  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

period  of  transitional  development.  Nevertheless,  even 
among  primitive  peoples,  we  find  numerous  deviations 
from  the  permanent  monogamic  form  of  marriage.  Here 
the  duration  of  the  marriage  relation  varies  from  a  very 
transitory  state,  among  a  few  groups,  to  life-long  union 
among  others.  Indeed,  the  character  and  permanency  of 
family  life  is  one  indication  of  the  degree  of  civilization 
attained  by  a  particular  society.  Sometimes  the  relation 
is  so  temporary  as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  marriage. 
With  the  development  of  group  life,  loose  marriage  rela- 
tionships become  more  definite  and  some  sort  of  ritual  or 
symbolic  ceremony  grows  up  to  celebrate  the  union. 
Divorce,  in  the  sense  of  breaking  up  this  marriage  relation- 
ship, is  very  old.  Among  early  peoples  the  right  to  a 
dissolution  of  the  bond  was  generally  given  to  the  man, 
not  to  the  woman.  But  among  all  civilized  peoples,  from 
the  earliest  times,  the  ideal  marriage  has  been  that  of 
life-long  union.  The  ancient  law  code  of  Hammurabi, 
ruler  of  the  earlier  Babylonian  kingdom,  mentions  causes 
of  divorce  and  regulations  for  the  disposal  of  the  property, 
or  for  transfer  of  the  dowry,  of  divorced  parties.  In 
ancient  Jewish  society,  where  the  patriarchal  system  pre- 
vailed, family  life  was  stable  and  authoritative.  But  even 
here  the  right  of  the  husband  to  put  away  his  wife  was 
conceded  in  the  Mosaic  code. 

The  family  of  the  early  Romans  was  not  only  patriarchal, 
but  also  characterized  by  ancestor  worship.  The  marriage 
The  ceremony  was  of  a  religious  nature  in  which  the 

bride's  father  freed  her  from  the  worship  of  her 
own  household  gods,  whereupon  she  accepted  the  ancestor 
worship  of  her  husband's  family.  Divorce  and  polygyny 
were  practically  unknown  among  the  early  Romans,  whose 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  523 

family  life  was  pure  and  stable.  Adoption  was  frequently 
resorted  to  by  the  Roman  family  when  the  line  of  descent 
was  jeopardized  by  the  lack  of  natural  offspring.  With  the 
decay  of  ancestor  worship,  the  patriarchal  family  declined. 
The  decadence  of  family  life  was  also  hastened  by  the 
growth  of  a  skeptical  philosophy,  and  by  the  numerous 
political  and  social  changes  of  the  later  Republic.  In  the 
days  of  the  Empire,  marriage  came  to  be  regarded  as  a 
private  contract,  and  the  old  idea  of  the  religious  nature  of 
marriage,  prevalent  in  the  early  Republic,  gradually  dis- 
appeared. The  great  law  system  of  Rome  also  began  to 
grow  in  complexity  and  to  include  the  legal  rights  of  women 
and  children.  Divorce,  which  was  formerly  almost 
unknown,  became  more  and  more  frequent.  The  right  of 
divorce  was  opened  to  wives,  as  well  as  to  husbands. 
Among  certain  classes  in  the  decadent  period  of  Roman 
history,  divorce  was  so  common  and  so  easy  to  obtain  that 
a  stable  family  life  ceased  to  exist.  Vice  was  rampant 
and  played  a  sinister  part  in  the  downfall  of  the  Empire. 
Rome  at  this  time  is  the  classical  illustration  of  the  appar- 
ently direct  relationship  between  unstable  family  life  and 
national  disintegration. 

The  Christian  ideal  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  ascetic. 
The  early  church  fathers  regarded  both  woman  and  the 
institution  of  marriage  as  obstacles  in  the  path  Marriage  a 
of  saintly  living.  Celibacy  was  the  rule  for  the  sacrament- 
clergy.  Whereas  the  early  Church  had  exercised  but  little 
jurisdiction  over  marriage,  the  ceremony  later  became 
religious  and  was  performed  by  the  priest  in  the  parish 
church.  Marriage  was  finally  enumerated  as  one  of  the 
sacraments  of  the  Church,  and  the  whole  subject  placed 
under  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  This  point  of  view, 


524  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

known  as  the  sacramental  theory,  regards  marriage  as 
indissoluble.  The  wide  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  of  the  Middle  Ages  included  not  only  religious 
matters,  but  also  all  questions  regarding  marriage.  The 
church  courts  not  only  possessed  the  power  to  try  heretics, 
but  also  the  authority  to  pass  upon  the  validity  of  marriages. 
A  marriage  might  therefore  be  annulled  because  of  some 
fault  impairing  its  validity,  but  divorce  itself  was  not 
granted.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  to-day  still  regards 
marriage  as  a  sacrament  and  refuses  to  recognize  any 
right  of  divorce. 

The  Protestant  Reformation,  weakening  the  authority 

of  the  Church,  served  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the 

State.     This  resulted  finally  in  the  civil  author- 

Marnage 

contract  ^es  takm&  over  many  powers  formerly  exer- 
cised by  the  Church.  The  Renaissance  had 
attacked  the  ascetic  ideals  of  the  medieval  Church,  and  the 
Protestant  Reformation  permitted  the  marriage  of  its 
clergy.  The  trend  of  modern  times  has  been  consistently 
toward  a  separation  of  Church  and  State,  and  this  move- 
ment has  reflected  itself  in  a  changing  attitude  toward 
marriage.  A  civil  marriage  act  was  passed  by  the  England 
of  Cromwell.  On  the  continent,  this  development  was 
largely  a  result  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the  nine- 
teenth century  witnessed  the  triumph  of  the  idea  through- 
out Europe.  Although  the  laws  regarding  divorce  had  long 
remained  practically  undisturbed,  the  principle  involved 
in  the  new  theory  began  to  produce  its  results  later.  Eccle- 
siastical courts,  like  those  of  the  feudal  nobles,  had  long 
lost  all  power,  for  their  jurisdiction  had  been  usurped  by 
the  state  courts.  When  divorce  was  finally  recognized, 
the  civil  courts  were  the  only  proper  legal  agencies  to  grant 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  525 

the  right.  In  the  marriage  ceremony  of  to-day  the 
religious,  as  well  as  the  civil,  idea  persists.  An  entirely 
civil  marriage,  however,  is  possible,  and  the  ceremony  may 
even  be  performed  by  a  magistrate  or  by  a  justice  of  the 
peace.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  procure  a  license  from  the 
state  authorities,  before  any  ceremony  can  be  performed 
by  a  clergyman.  Some  European  countries  require  a  civil 
marriage,  but  it  may  be  followed,  if  desired,  by  the  religious 
ceremony. 

Divorce  in  the  United  States.— In  the  United  States, 
the  whole  question  of  marriage  and  divorce  lies  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  several  states.  The  federal 
government  has  no  authority  in  the  matter, 
Hence,  great  discrepancies  exist  within  the  sev-  states! 
eral  states  in  both  marriage  and  divorce  laws. 
For  example,  there  is  no  uniformity  regarding  the  legal  age 
of  marriage,  nor  the  grounds  for  divorce,  nor  agreement 
concerning  the  degree  of  relationship  within  which  mar- 
riage is  forbidden.  Certain  states  forbid  the  intermarriage 
of  whites  with  negroes,  others  of  whites  with  Indians,  and 
still  others  of  whites  with  Chinese.  Again,  some  states 
are  lax  in  the  enforcement  of  marriage  laws  and  in  requiring 
the  registration  of  all  marriages.  This  registration  is  either 
not  done  at  all,  or  so  poorly  done  in  some  sections  as  to 
be  of  no  real  value.  In  general,  we  may  say  that  the  mar- 
riage laws  of  the  United  States  are  entirely  too  lax,  and 
that  hasty  marriages  often  result  in  divorce.  Not  only 
should  the  applicant  for  a  marriage  license  be  required  to 
live  a  given  time  in  the  district,  but  it  has  also  been  pro- 
posed that  a  certain  time  should  elapse  between  the  issuance 
of  the  license  and  the  performance  of  the  marriage  cere- 
mony. Laws  have  been  recently  passed  in  some  states 


526  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

prohibiting  the  marriage  of  certain  degenerate  classes,  like 
the  feeble-minded,  and  those  possessing  hereditary  defects. 
Other  eugenic  measures  have  also  been  proposed  to  improve 
the  physical  stock  of  the  race.  Some  of  these  are  excellent, 
but  others  are  too  radical  in  the  physical  tests  required  for 
the  marriage  certificate. 

In  1887  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  was  authorized  by 
Congress  to  collect  and  report  the  statistics  of  marriage 
and  divorce  throughout  the  country.  This 
increase  of  report  covered  the  twenty  years  from  1867  to 
1887.  In  South  Carolina  no  marriages  were 
recorded,  and  in  many  other  districts  the  registration  was  far 
from  complete.  Divorce  statistics  for  this  period,  unlike 
those  for  marriage,  were  fairly  complete  and  sufficiently 
accurate  for  purposes  of  scientific  study.  In  1905,  the 
Director  of  the  Census  was  authorized  to  make  a  similar 
investigation  for  the  next  twenty  years,  namely  from  1887 
to  1906,  inclusive.  This  was  published  several  years  later 
and  made  possible  a  study  of  the  divorce  movement  in  the 
United  States  over  a  continuous  period  of  forty  years.  It 
was  found  from  this  census  study  that,  in  the  decade 
between  1867  and  1876,  one  hundred  and  twenty- two 
thousand  divorces  were  granted;  between  1877  and  1886, 
two  hundred  and  six  thousand;  between  1887  and  1896, 
three  hundred  and  fifty-two  thousand;  and  between  1897 
and  1906,  five  hundred  and  ninety-three  thousand.  This 
study  also  showed  that,  in  the  last  twenty  years  inves- 
tigated, almost  a  million  divorces  had  been  granted  in  the 
United  States.  This  increase  of  divorce  should  be  com- 
pared with  the  increase  of  population,  and  with  the  increase 
of  marriage.  Whereas  the  population  in  1905  was  little 
more  than  double  that  of  1870,  divorces  were  six  times  as 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  527 

numerous.  Thus  we  may  say  that  the  increase  of  divorce 
was  three  times  as  rapid  as  the  increase  of  population. 
Again,  whereas  the  married  population  a  little  more  than 
doubled  between  1870  and  1900,  the  number  of  divorces 
increased  five-fold.  A  projection  of  the  same  rate  to  the 
end  of  the  present  century  would  mean  that  half  of  the 
marriages  then  contracted  would  end  in  divorce.  Such  a 
situation  would  not  be  unlike  that  prevailing  in  the  days 
of  the  declining  Roman  Empire. 

The  United  States  has  the  unenviable  reputation  of 
leading  the  civilized  world  in  divorce.  Professor  Ellwood 
in  his  study  of  the  divorce  problem  gives  the  . 

Comparison 

following  figures  for  1905,  which  show  that  the   with 
United  States  has  more  than  double  the  com- 
bined amount  of  divorce  in  the  foreign  nations  investigated : 

United  States 67,976  Great   Britain   and 

Germany u,i47          Ireland 821 

France 10,860      Australia 339 

Austria-Hungary  . .  5,785       Canada 33 

Although  the  increase  in  the  number  of  divorces  is  not  a 
national  but  an  international  phenomenon,  characteristic 
of  modern  civilization,  our  own  country  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous example  of  this  evil.  In  1905  we  had  about  one 
divorce  to  every  twelve  marriages,  while  in  France  the 
ratio  was  one  to  thirty;  in  Germany  one  to  forty-four;  and 
in  England  one  to  four  hundred.  In  a  few  of  the  states 
the  ratio  ranged  from  one  to  eight,  one  to  seven,  one  to 
six;  and,  in  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Montana,  there  was 
one  divorce  to  every  five  marriages.  The  Report  on  Mar- 
riage and  Divorce  by  the  United  States  Census  Bureau 
already  mentioned  shows  that  our  divorce  rate  is  higher 


528  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

than  that  of  any  other  western  nation.  It  is  about  three 
times  that  of  France,  four  times  that  of  Germany,  and 
thirty  times  that  of  Great  Britain.  The  infrequency  of 
divorce,  however,  does  not  necessarily  indicate,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  a  better  or  higher  family  life  in  those  states 
or  nations  possessing  a  lower  divorce  rate.  Customs,  laws, 
or  religious  beliefs  may  keep  the  family  intact  even  when 
family  life  is  disintegrating.  Where  divorce  is  difficult  or 
impossible  to  obtain,  there  may  be  many  disrupted  families 
who  cannot  register  their  disruption  in  the  divorce  sta- 
tistics of  the  courts. 

We  have  already  seen  that  a  great  difference  exists 
between  the  divorce  laws,  and  consequently  the  divorce 
Distribu-  rates>  °f  tne  different  states.  In  general,  the 
tion:  divorce  rate  is  greater  in  the  northern  and  west- 

ern states  than  in  those  to  the  South  and  East. 
Divorce  has  been  compared  to  a  great  cloud  lowering  from 
the  Northwest.  There  are  three  great  geographical  cen- 
ters of  divorce:  (i)  New  England;  (2)  the  states  of  the 
Central  West;  and  (3)  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
Coast  states.  The  Middle  Atlantic  and  southern  groups 
of  states  show  the  lowest  proportion  of  divorce.  Recently, 
however,  the  divorce  rate  has  shown  a  rapid  increase  in  a 
few  southern  centers,  and  also  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia. 
A  recent  Census  Report  showed  that  the  divorce  rate  in 
the  North  Central  states  was  two  and  one-half  times  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic  states,  while  the  divorce  rate  of  the 
western  division  was  four  tunes  as  great. 

In  Europe,  divorce  was  regarded  as  a  phenomenon  of 
city  life  because  the  rate  was  so  much  higher  in  the  urban 
than  in  the  rural  districts.  The  census  investigation, 
however,  found  that  this  difference  was  not  so  strikingly 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  529 

significant  in  the  United  States.     But,  although  variations 
exist,   it  is  nevertheless  true  that  in  our  own    urban 
country  the  divorce  rate  is  higher  in  the  urban   ™fluence- 
than  in  the  rural  districts. 

Court  records  in  the  South  often  do  not  give  information 
concerning  the  color  of  the  litigants.  Consequently,  it  is 
impossible  to  establish  any  definite  fact  in  regard 

i  .  .  Race. 

to  the  comparative  proportion  of  divorces 
between  the  two  races.  Again,  many  of  the  negroes  live 
so  near  the  poverty  line  that  legal  divorce  through  the 
courts  is  too  expensive.  Simple  desertion,  often  by  mutual 
consent  and  without  the  process  of  law,  is  comparatively 
more  common. 

The  r61e  of  the  immigrant  in  the  divorce  problem  is  not 
so  uncertain.  The  divorce  rate  is  much  higher  among  the 
native  born  than  among  the  foreign  element  in 
our  population.  Many  immigrants  come  from 
lands  where  both  tradition  and  religion  are  so  strong  that 
these  forces  persist  in  the  new  country  and  operate  against 
the  divorce  evil. 

Because  of  the  uncompromising  attitude  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  against  this  evil,  divorce  is  much  more 
common  in  Protestant  than  in  Catholic  com-   Religious 
munities.     In    Switzerland,    for    example,    the    ' 
divorce  rate  is  higher  in  the  Protestant  than  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  cantons.     Some  observers  claim  that  the  divorce 
rate  is  highest  among  those  of  no  religious  profession. 

The  divorce  rate  is  about  four  times  as  high  among  child- 
less couples  as  among  those  having  children.  Of  the  mil- 
lion divorces  granted  between  1887  and  1906, 

Other  facts. 

no  children  were  reported  in  about  sixty  per 
cent  of  the  families  affected.     Thus,  children  would  seem 
ii 


530  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

to  be  an  important  factor  in  about  two  cases  out  of  five. 
Regarding  the  party  to  whom  the  divorce  is  granted,  we 
find  that  twice  as  many  women  receive  divorces  as  men. 
Thus,  about  two-thirds  of  all  divorces  are  granted  upon 
the  plea  of  the  wife,  and  about  one-third  upon  the  plea  of 
the  husband.  Regarding  the  duration  of  married  life, 
the  census  report  showed  that,  in  one-quarter  of  all  the 
marriages  terminated  by  divorce,  the  separation  took 
place  within  two  years,  and,  in  one-half  of  the  cases,  within 
five  years,  after  marriage. 

The  legal  grounds  for  divorce  vary  as  much  among  the 

different  states  as  do  the  actual  rates  of  divorce.     South 

Carolina  refuses  to  grant  divorce.     New  York 

grounds  for   recognizes  but  one  cause,  infidelity,  while  in 

divorce. 

other  states  there  are  many  legal  grounds  upon 
which  divorce  may  be  granted.  The  three  leading  causes 
are  desertion,  cruelty,  and  adultery.  Often  the  legal 
grounds  upon  which  divorce  is  granted  reveal  little  infor- 
mation as  to  the  real  cause  of  the  disrupted  family  life. 
To  the  student  of  American  democracy,  the  causes  under- 
lying the  broken  family  life  are  of  more  importance  than 
the  actual  divorce,  which  merely  legalizes  the  disruption 
already  accomplished.  Furthermore,  desertion,  for  which 
reason  two-fifths  of  all  divorces  are  granted,  is  a  "blanket  " 
term.  It  is  used  in  many  cases  as  the  legal  ground  for 
granting  the  divorce,  but  the  real  cause  of  the  disrupted 
family  is  not  revealed.  Although  there  is  but  one  legal 
ground  for  divorce  in  New  York,  many  divorces  are  granted 
under  that  name,  but  for  other  causes.  Variation  between 
the  states  in  the  strictness  of  divorce  laws  often  results  in 
a  certain  amount  of  migration  from  state  to  state  for 
divorce  seekers.  Hence,  a  change  in  our  constitutional 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  531 

system,  whereby  a  uniform  federal  divorce  law  may  be 
enacted,  is  earnestly  advocated  by  many  students  of  the 
divorce  problem. 

Causes  of  the  Increase  of  Divorce. — The  rise  of  the 
factory  system  marked  the  passing  of  the  economic  function 
of  the  family.  Production  went  from  the  home 
to  the  factory.  In  earlier  days  the  father  Economic 
farmed,  the  wife  spun,  and  within  the  family 
circle  were  produced  most  of  the  necessities  of 
life.  To-day,  even  articles  of  food,  like  bread 
and  soup,  are  more  often  prepared  in  the  factory  than  in 
the  home.  Although  division  of  labor  and  the  use  of 
machinery  have  made  goods  cheaper  and  more  plentiful, 
these  forces  have  broken  up  the  economic  interdependence 
of  family  life.  Great  industrial  centers  have  developed 
where  not  only  fathers,  but  also  mothers  and  children,  find 
employment.  The  factory  system  has  lessened  the  work 
to  be  done  at  home,  but  has  offered  to  women  and  child- 
ren employment  in  the  factory.  Different  members  of  the 
family  become  employed  in  different  places  and  occupa- 
tions. Interests  vary  and  the  home  sometimes  becomes 
merely  a  place  in  which  to  eat  and  sleep.  Such  a  situation 
often  results  in  the  production  of  unsocialized  children, 
because  high  ideals  of  family  life  are  lacking.  Again,  the 
neglect  of  practical  training  in  the  duties  of  motherhood 
may  bear  fruit  in  the  unhappy  homes  of  a  future  generation. 
That  the  school  is  taking  over  some  of  the  old  home  duties 
may  be  seen  by  the  new  vocational  courses  and  the  courses 
in  domestic  science.  Mothers,  employed  long  hours  in  fac- 
tories, have  little  time  to  teach,  or  to  illustrate  by  example, 
the  art  of  happy  home-making  to  daughters  often  similarly 
employed.  In  some  cases,  nervous  or  physical  exhaustion 


53  2 


Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 


makes  them  unfit  for  their  own  duties  of  wife  and  mother. 
The  severe  struggle  for  existence  may  also  take  the  charm 
from  married  life.  An  equally  grave  situation  is  met  in  the 
homes  of  another  class,  where  the  opposite  situation  pre vu  i  1  - . 
Modern  industrialism  has  lessened  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  done  in  the  home,  particularly  in  the  cities.  Therefore, 
women  of  the  wealthy  class  often  live  at  idle  ease.  It  is 


How  INDUSTRY  BREAKS  UP  THE  HOME— WOMEN  IN  THE  COTTON  MILL 

this  group  of  "idle  rich,"  where  the  birth  rate  is  low,  that 
furnishes  so  many  divorce  scandals.  Leisure  time, 
unprofitably  or  unwholesomely  employed,  saps  the  moral 
fiber  far  more  than  a  hard-pressed  or  overworked  existence. 
In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that  the  Industrial  Revolution 
has  broken  the  economic  unity  of  the  family  and  placed 
the  industrial  work  of  woman  outside  the  home.  It  has 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family 


533 


brought  an  increasing  amount  of  wealth  unevenly  dis- 
tributed. Unfortunately,  not  only  leisure  time  and  the 
size  of  the  family  seem  inversely  proportional,  but  social 
classes  at  opposite  extremes  often  present,  for  far  different 
reasons,  a  like  problem  of  disrupted  family  life. 


MAKING  GARMENTS  IN  A  NEW  YORK  FACTORY — INSTEAD  OF  IN  THE  HOME 

The  entrance  of  woman  into  industry  has  been  marked 
by  various  economic  as  well  as  social  consequences.    While 
the  movement  will  undoubtedly  be  ultimately  Economic 
advantageous  to  society,  it  nevertheless  pro-   emancipation 

.     ,       f  .   .  .  .         of  woman. 

duces  in  the  period  of  transition  certain  unde- 
sirable   social    consequences.     Until    very    recent    times, 
woman,  rightly  or  wrongly,  has  always  been  regarded  as 
economically    dependent    upon    man.     This    view    has 


534  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

obtained  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  woman  has  always  per- 
formed a  large  part  of  the  industrial  labor  of  society.  Her 
work,  however,  has  been  less  noticeable  than  that  of  man, 
because  it  has  been  confined  to  the  home.  Matrimony, 
therefore,  was  regarded  as  a  means  of  support  for  women. 
But  now  the  employments  opened  to  woman  have  so 
widened  that  matrimony  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  neces- 
sary means  of  support.  Divorce  offers  a  way  out  of  an 
unhappy  married  life,  while  industry  furnishes  the  means 
of  support.  Woman  is  now  in  industry  as  an  independent 
competitor,  receiving  definite  wages  for  services  rendered. 
This  growing  economic  independence  of  woman  may  be 
read  in  the  laws  establishing  the  property  rights  of  married 
women.  Not  only  divorce  but  late  marriages,  as  well  as 
spinsterhood,  are  frequent  manifestations  of  the  economic 
emancipation  of  woman. 

With  the  advance  of  industrial  civilization  has  come  a 
rise  in  standards  of  living  which,  of  course,  has  been 
Bigher  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  living. 
standards  Wants  and  desires  have  increased  faster  than 

of  living.  . 

incomes.  The  luxuries  of  yesterday  have  become 
the  necessities  of  to-day.  Higher  standards  of  living  are 
socially  desirable,  but  when  they  exceed  wholesome  limits, 
the  results  are  often  disastrous.  Each  group  desires  to 
imitate  the  standards  set  by  the  next  higher  economic 
class.  This  is  the  cause  of  much  domestic  unhappiness, 
which  reflects  itself  in  increasing  divorce.  Luxurious 
living  and  the  increased  cost  of  living  are  thus  partly 
responsible  for  the  later  age  of  marriage  and  for  the 
accompanying  increase  of  divorce.  Professional  men  of 
to-day  are  often  financially  unable  to  undertake  the 
responsibilities  of  married  life  until  they  attain  the  larger 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  535 

income  that  comes  with  later  years.  But,  at  this  later  age, 
the  habits  of  the  individual  are  relatively  more  fixed  and 
harder  to  change.  Thus,  the  adjustment  necessitated  by 
marriage  is  more  difficult  in  later  than  in  earlier  life.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  mature  years  bring 
judgment  and  discretion,  while  early  marriages,  rashly 
contracted  by  impetuous  youth,  often  result  in  marital 
disasters.  It  is  true,  however,  that  a  rising  divorce  rate 
in  this  country  has  accompanied  the  advancing  age  of 
marriage,  although  the  latter  may  not  be  the  direct  cause 
of  the  former. 

Our  new  industrial  system  has  resulted  in  an  enormous 
growth  of  cities.    As  we  have  seen,  the  divorce  rate  is  higher 
in  urban  than  in  rural  communities.     Here  are 
most  apparent  the  differences  in  standards  of 
living.     Again,  vice  and  immorality  are  often  associated 
with  city  life.     Slums  constitute  a  difficult  environment 
for  a  wholesome  family  life,  while  a  normal  happy  family 
life  is  hard  to  attain  for  those  living  in  the  fairly  congested 
districts. 

The  rise  of  individualism  took  place  in  the  period  follow- 
ing the  Renaissance.     It  expressed  itself  in  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  and  in  the  French  and  American 
Revolutions.    As  a  further  result  of  this  liberal-   progress: 
izing  movement,  marriage  came  to  be  regarded  J^«a«wii. 
more  as  a  civil  contract  than  as  a  sacrament. 
The  old   authoritative   type  of  the  family  reached  its 
extreme  development  in  patriarchal  days,  when  woman 
was  regarded  as  the  property  of  the  husband.     For  many 
centuries,  traces  of  that  spirit  lingered  in  family  life,  but 
to-day   they   have    been  practically  obliterated   by   the 
spread  of  democratic  individualism.    Again,  social  insti- 


536  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

tutions  are  not  now  regarded  as  existing  for  themselves, 
but  rather  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  create  them.  Thus, 
marriage  as  an  institution  is  not  always  considered 
inherently  sacred. 

The  rise  of  individualism  has  also  reflected  itself  in  what 
is  generally  known  as  the  Woman's  Movement.  We  have 
The  Woman's  spoken  of  the  economic  emancipation  of  woman, 
Movement.  anj  now  pass  to  a  consideration  of  the  intel- 
lectual and  legal  aspects  of  the  problem.  The  inferior 
position  of  woman,  due  to  her  economic  dependence  upon 
man,  no  longer  exists.  Under  the  old  system,  the  wife 
had  little  redress  for  wrongs  suffered.  She  often  accepted 
her  fate  stoically;  but,  with  the  acquisition  of  new  rights 
and  a  new  point  of  view,  woman  has  chosen  to  obtain  relief 
from  conditions  to  which  she  formerly  submitted.  The 
rising  divorce  rate — unfortunate  though  it  be — does  reflect 
the  growing  freedom  of  American  women  and  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  that  conditions  of  family  life  are  worse 
than  they  were  before  the  movement  began. 

The  decrease  of  illiteracy  shows  that  education  is  no 
longer  the  prerogative  of  the  few.  Public  schools,  free 
libraries,  and  daily  newspapers  disseminate 
knowledge  which  brings  emancipation  from 
tradition.  Knowledge  and  progress  always  pro- 
duce social  unrest.  To  this  principle  the  insti- 
tution of  marriage  is  no  exception.  Existing  injustices  are 
more  keenly  felt,  and  escape  is  sought  from  a  condition 
which  formerly  was  endured.  Law,  as  well  as  education, 
has  been  popularized.  Ordinary  legal  knowledge  is  now 
within  the  reach  of  every  one  and  the  courts  are  open  to  all. 
Individuals  who  formerly  knew  little  of  divorce  now  know 
how  and  why  it  may  be  obtained. 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  537 

History  bears  witness  to  the  fact  that  no  stable  family 
life  has  endured  without  a  religious  basis.  In  Rome  the 
decay  of  religion  was  followed  by  the  increase  of 

Moral  and 

divorce.     At   present,   we   are   witnessing   the   religious 

•  rii  •  -       ,.    .  •  changes. 

passing  of  the  dogmatic  age  of  religious  history. 
With  the  change  in  the  point  of  view  goes  an  increase  in 
divorce.  Although  dogma  to-day  does  not  occupy  a  posi- 
tion of  supreme  importance,  it  is  true  that  character  and 
service  are  becoming  more  important.  New  ethical  con- 
cepts of  right  and  wrong  are  being  formed.  Formerly,  it 
was  regarded  as  pious  to  continue  the  sacred  marriage 
relationship  in  spite  of  all  differences,  and  to  endure  any 
suffering  which  might  arise.  At  present,  however,  the 
modern  attitude  seems  to  be  that  marriage,  like  the  Sab- 
bath, was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  marriage.  Again, 
an  increase  of  divorce  does  not  necessarily  mean  an  increase 
of  immorality.  It  may  mean  that  our  moral  standards  are 
higher,  and  that  fewer  wives  will  permit  deception  or 
brutality.  Thus,  the  new  situation  may  really  be  an 
indication  of  higher  ideals  of  family  life. 

The  Outlook. — In  response  to  the  invitation    of  the 
Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  a  commission  of  over  one  hun- 
dred representatives  from  almost  all  the  states    National 
of  the  union  met  at  Washington,  in  February,    Congress 

J  '     on  Uniform 

1900.     This  meeting  was  known  as  the  National    Divorce 
Congress  on  Uniform  Divorce  Laws.     No  fed- 
eral divorce  law  was  regarded  as  feasible,  because  it  would 
require  the  passage  of  a  constitutional  amendment.     It  was 
desirable,  however,  that  all  states  cooperate  in  order  to 
secure  uniform  divorce  legislation.     It  was  agreed  that  all 
applicants  for  divorce  should  be  bona  fide  residents  of  the 
state  in  which  the  suit  was  filed,  and  that,  to  secure  a  decree 


538  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

of  absolute  divorce,  the  applicant  should  reside  two  years 
in  the  state.  The  Congress  desired  to  see  the  number  of 
causes  of  divorce  reduced  and  to  standardize  the  whole 
divorce  question.  It  was  thought  that  a  decree  dissolving 
the  marriage  tie  and  permitting  the  remarriage  of  either 
party  should  not  become  operative  until  after  the  lapse  of 
a  reasonable  time.  The  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  Cali- 
fornia rule  of  one  year  was  recommended.  It  was  also 
recommended  that  each  state  collect  and  publish  annually 
statistics  upon  marriage  and  divorce.  While  uniform 
divorce  laws  would  be  of  great  advantage,  it  must  not  be 
imagined  that  mere  uniformity  of  legislation  would  pre- 
vent the  increase  of  divorce,  the  causes  of  which  are  deep- 
seated  and  complex. 

The  attitude  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  upon  divorce 
has  already  been  mentioned.  The  Protestant  churches 
_,  ,  .  have  also  been  alarmed  at  the  rapid  increase  of 

Work  of 

religious  divorce,  and  at  various  meetings  of  the  govern- 
ing bodies  of  the  different  denominations  action 
has  been  taken  upon  the  subject.  Slight  discrepancies 
exist  in  the  resolutions  of  the  different  bodies,  but  a  con- 
sistent effort  has  been  made  to  lessen  the  number  of  causes 
of  divorce.  Infidelity  is  usually  regarded  as  the  sole  scrip- 
tural ground  for  the  granting  of  divorce.  The  indiscrim- 
inate marriage  of  divorced  people  has  also  been  condemned. 
The  desirability  of  uniform  marriage  and  divorce  laws  is 
apparent,  but  uniformity  in  administration  is  also  needed. 
Remedies:  Not  only  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  causes  for 
Legal.  absolute  divorce,  but  also  a  legal  prohibition  of 

the  marriage  of  divorced  people  is  often  recommended. 
This  latter  restriction,  however,  is  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  both  dangerous  and  undesirable.  Better,  perhaps, 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  539 

would  be  the  recommendation  of  the  National  Congress  on 
Uniform  Divorce  Laws  that  a  certain  time  must  elapse 
after  the  granting  of  divorce  before  the  remarriage  of  either 
party.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  a  nisi  or  conditional 
clause,  which  prevents  the  divorce  from  becoming  operative 
until  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  or  two.  This  condition 
affords  the  possibility  of  a  reconciliation,  while  it  lessens 
the  likelihood  of  fraud  or  scandal.  Some  communities  have 
established  special  Courts  of  Domestic  Relations.  Under 
this  system,  all  applications  for  divorce  first  come  before  a 
special  tribunal,  which  carefully  investigates  the  case  in 
order  to  determine  whether,  for  the  good  of  society,  the 
dissolution  of  the  family  tie  is  warranted.  Reconciliation 
is  generally  the  aim  of  the  court;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is 
often  too  late  to  accomplish  this  end.  Regarding  all  rem- 
edies for  divorce,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  divorce  itself 
is  merely  the  legalization  of  the  disruption  of  family  life 
which  has  already  been  accomplished.  Real  reform  has  its 
roots  in  pre-marital  conditions  and  in  family  life  itself, 
rather  than  in  restrictions  on  divorce.  Bad  marriages  are 
essentially  the  cause  of  divorce.  These  include  in  the 
words  of  Professor  Howard  "  frivolous,  mercenary,  ignorant, 
and  physiologically  vicious  unions."  Again,  the  various 
causes  resident  in  the  environment  which  hinder  a  whole- 
some family  life  should  be  carefully  considered  in  any  com- 
prehensive attempt  to  solve  the  divorce  problem. 

In  seeking  to  cure  the  divorce  evil,  the  proper  education, 
of  the  young  is  even  more  necessary  than  the  legal  remedies. 
Education  in  its  broadest  sense  is  designed  to 

,  .,  ,     r  .  Educational. 

fit  the  child  for  his  proper  place  in  society. 

It  is  more  than  formal  instruction  in  a  course  of  study. 

It  should  therefore  emphasize  the  basic  position  of  the 


540  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

family,  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  relationship,  and  the 
necessity  for  high  family  ideals.  To  do  this  the  Church, 
the  school,  and  the  home  should  cooperate,  each  having 
the  same  aim  but  pursuing  different  methods.  The 
importance  of  the  family,  not  only  to  the  individuals  con- 
cerned but  to  society  itself,  should  be  emphasized.  Atten- 
tion must  therefore  be  given  not  only  to  moral  education, 
but  to  careful  training  in  the  actual  duties  of  the  home. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  family,  the  modern  course  in 
domestic  science  is  a  most  important  factor  in  promoting 
social  welfare. 

It  would  seem  that  the  family,  like  other  social  institu- 
tions, is  in  a  process  of  transition.     The  economic  bonds 
which  formerly  held  it  together  are  weakening, 

A  problem 

of  adjust-  while  at  the  same  time  the  patriarchal  ideal  of 
family  life  is  gradually  disappearing.  The 
family  of  the  future  must  depend  largely  upon  mutual  love, 
consideration,  and  forbearance.  It  will  therefore  be 
stronger  and  of  a  higher  type.  Again,  the  unfortunate 
increase  of  divorce  may  be  one  indication  of  social  progress, 
which  is  always  a  costly  process.  Enlightenment  illumi- 
nates injustices  and  maladjustments.  The  older  type  of 
family  was  more  stable  because  it  rested  upon  an  authori- 
tative basis.  A  more  democratic  type  must  be  evolved  in 
harmony  with  the  higher  ethical  standards  of  the  age. 
Of  the  monogamic  family  we  need  not  despair.  The  single 
pairing  family  will  persist.  After  the  process  of  adjust- 
ment is  completed,  the  ideal  of  life-long  union  will  once 
more  triumph.  The  new  type  of  family  will  be  founded 
upon  the  principle  of  mutual  obligation.  It  will  be  demo- 
cratic and  the  spirit  of  dominance  and  subordination  will 
disappear. 


The  Problem  of  the  Modern  Family  541 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  and  why  may  the  family  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental 
social  unit? 

2.  Distinguish  between  the  primary  and  secondary  functions  of 
the  family.     Explain  each. 

3.  Do  you  think  that  the  family  is  losing  some  of  its  secondary 
functions?     If  so,  to  what  other  social  institutions?     Explain. 

4.  Is  the  permanent  monogamic  family  an  old  social  institution? 
Discuss  from  the  life  of  primitive  peoples. 

5.  Compare  the  family  life  of  early  and  later  Roman  history. 

6.  Discuss  the  institution  of  marriage  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

7.  Explain  the  sacramental  theory  of  marriage. 

8.  Show  how  marriage  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  civil  contract. 

9.  Name  some  proposed  reforms  regarding  our  marriage  laws. 

10.  Show  the  rapid  increase  of  divorce  in  the  United  States. 

1 1 .  Compare  the  increase  of  divorce  with  the  increase  of  population. 

12.  Compare  the  divorce  rate  with  the  marriage  rate. 

13.  How  does  our  divorce  rate  compare  with  that  of  Europe? 

14.  Show  the  geographical  distribution  of  divorce  in  America. 

15.  Compare  the  urban  and  rural  rates.     Give  reasons  for  the 
difference. 

1 6.  Show  the  influence  upon  the  divorce  rate  of  race,  nativity, 
and  religious  belief. 

17.  What   are   the   most   important   legal   grounds   of   divorce? 
Discuss  their  general  significance  to  the  student. 

1 8.  Outline  the  causes  of  the  increase  of  divorce. 

19.  How  does  the  opening  of  numerous  occupations  to  women 
affect  the  divorce  rate  and  why? 

20.  Show  the  r6le  played  by  higher  standards  and  increased  cost  of 
living. 

2 1 .  Discuss  the  effect  of  the  popularization  of  law  and  education 
on  divorce. 

22.  How  has  the  moral  and  religious  sentiment  in  regard  to 
marriage  altered? 

23.  Discuss  the  proposed  legal  remedies  for  the  divorce  problem 
and  their  limitations. 

24.  Explain  the  fundamental  cure  for  the  divorce  evil. 


542  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

25.  Show  how  the  increase  of  divorce  presents  a  problem  of  social 
adjustment. 

26.  Explain  both  the  pessimistic  and  the  optimistic  sides  of  the 
phenomenon  of  increased  divorce. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Various  forms  of  family  life  and  marriage  relationships. 

2.  The  position  of  women  in  ancient  Athens  and  Rome. 

3.  The  cost  of  social  progress. 

4.  City  life  and  divorce. 

5.  The  problem  of  desertion. 

6.  Migration  for  divorce. 

7.  The  remarriage  of  divorced  people. 

8.  Effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  on  home  and  family  life. 

9.  The  divorce  laws  of  your  state. 

10.  The  rise  of  individualism  and  its  relation  to  divorce. 

REFERENCES 

ABLER,  F.    Marriage  and  Divorce. 

ELLWOOD,C.A.  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems.  Chapter  VIII. 

GOODSELL,  W.     The  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational  Institution. 

HOWARD,  G.  E.    History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions. 

LICHTENBERGER,  J.  P.    Divorce—A  Study  in  Social  Causation. 

Reports  on  Marriage  and  Divorce.     U.  S.  Census,  ipoo. 

Ross,  E.  A.    Principles  of  Sociology. 

WESTERMARCK,  E.    History  of  Human  Marriage. 

WILLCOX,  W.  F.    The  Divorce  Problem:  a  Study  in  Statistics. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  A  DEMOCRACY 

T.  The  development  of  national  school  systems 

1.  In  Europe 

2.  In  the  United  States: 

a.  Its  growth 

b.  Its  administration 

II.  The  broadening  of  the  curriculum 

1.  The  scientific  movement: 

a.  In  general 

b.  In  education 

c.  In  methods 

2.  The  sociological  tendency 

3.  Vocational  training: 

a.  Industrial  education: 

(1)  In  Europe 

(2)  In  America 

b.  Commercial  schools 

c.  Agricultural  schools 
III.  Recent  tendencies 

1.  Social  activities 

2.  Home  and  School  Movement 

3.  Other  educational  agencies 

4.  Educational  readjustment 

5.  The  social  ideal 

Education  is  the  bulwark  of  civilization.  It  is  the 
fundamental  basis  of  democracy.  Through  it  society 
secures  the  discipline  and  training  needed  for  its  progressive 
development.  In  no  other  way  can  the  social  inheritance 

543 


544  Problems  <//  American  Democracy 

of  a  people  be  transformed  into  sound  national  character. 
For  this  reason  it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  provide  a 
system  of  education  which  will  insure  the  realization  of 
national  ideals,  as  well  as  the  attainment  of  economic  ends. 
The  Development    of    National    School     Systems. 
Until    recent   years,    schools    were    regarded    as   private 
ventures  and  a  man's  education  was  a  matter  of 
concern  only  to  himself  and  his  parents.     There 
were  no  national  school  systems  at  public  expense.     The 
pioneers  of  public  education  were  found  in  various  philan- 
thropic institutions,  such  as  the  charity  schools  of  England. 
The  great  progress  of  democracy  in  the  last  century  had 
its  effect  upon  education,  which  has  now  come   to  be 
regarded  as  a  civic  necessity.     The  former  aristocracy  of 
learning  is  a  thing  of  the  past.     The  masses,  whom  the 
past  regarded  as  mere  "hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water,"  are  no  longer  content  to  remain  in  ignorance.    The 
old  medieval  monarch  may  have  wished  merely  a  loyal 
peasantry,  but  modern  democratic  nations  cannot  continue 
to  exist  without  educated  citizenship.     Thus,  during  the 
last  century  and  a  half,  the  leading  nations  of  Europe 
have  developed  state  systems  of  education.     Prussia  was 
one  of  the  first  to  organize  a  scheme  of  universal  education 
and  to  make  the  system  compulsory.     This  was  accom- 
plished by  the  benevolent  despot,  Frederick  the  Great. 
A  national  system  of  education  had  its  beginnings  in 
France  during  the  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  periods. 
Louis  Philippe,  upon  the  advice  of  his  minister  Guizot, 
organized  a  scheme  of  elementary  education  whereby  each 
commune  was  required   to   establish  a  primary  school. 
Under  the  present  Third  Republic,  elementary  education 
has  been  made  free  to  all  and  compulsory.     The  seculari- 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  545 

zation  of  the  school  system  from  church  control  has  also 
gradually  taken  place.  The  administration  of  schools  in 
France  is  highly  centralized  under  a  Minister  of  Education. 
A  national  system  of  education  was  late  in  appearing  in 
England,  because  the  established  Anglican  Church  main- 
tained a  strong  grip  on  educational  institutions.  In  1870, 
however,  an  important  law  was  passed  establishing  elemen- 
tary schools  supported  by  government  grants.  Compulsory 
school  laws  have  also  been  passed. 

Our  own  early  educational  policy  varied  in  the  different 
colonies.     The   aristocratic   ideal   reflected   itself   in    the 
famous  dictum  of  Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia 
condemning  free  schools.     In  New  England,  on    uiiite'd 


the  other  hand,  the  school  house,  like  the 
meeting  house,  was  conspicuous  in  every  town- 
ship. As  early  as  1647,  Massachusetts  required  each 
town  of  fifty  families  to  support  an  elementary  school; 
and  each  town  of  a  hundred  families,  a  grammar  school  — 
an  institution  similar  to  the  secondary  school  of  to-day. 
That  the  fathers  of  our  nation  realized  the  importance  of 
higher  education  was  witnessed  by  the  founding  of  such 
colleges  as  Harvard,  and  William  and  Mary.  The  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  the  rapid  extension  of 
the  common  school  system  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  "  little  red  school  house"  dotted  the  western  wilder- 
ness, so  rapidly  developed  by  our  hardy  pioneers.  The 
public  high  school,  a  characteristic  American  educational 
institution,  arose  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  Latin  gram- 
mar schools  and  the  private  academies.  Normal  schools 
were  also  established  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Not  only 
has  the  number  of  students  in  such  institutions  increased, 
but  educational  standards  have  risen. 
JJ 


546  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

There  is  as  yet  no  centralized  administration  of  schools 
in  the  United  States,  for  each  state  has  its  own  independent 
its  adminis-  system.  These  state  systems,  however,  do  not 
tration.  varv  SQ  ^^ely  as  might  be  expected.  Every 
state  has  a  well-organized  plan  of  elementary  education, 
and  a  more  or  less  well-developed  secondary  or  high  school 
system,  providing  instruction  for  three  or  four  additional 
years.  Many  commonwealths  have  large  and  well- 
endowed  state  universities,  so  that  free  education  from 
kindergarten  to  college  is  within  the  reach  of  all  their 
citizens.  Our  American  democracy,  with  its  fundamental 
principle  of  the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  has 
regarded  education  as  the  bulwark  of  free  institutions. 
Unlike  Europe,  religious  or  sectarian  schools  have  not  been 
incorporated  into  our  public  educational  system.  Another 
difference  between  the  school  systems  of  Europe  and  those 
of  America  lies  in  our  own  refusal  to  recognize  class  dis- 
tinctions. In  Germany,  for  example,  there  are  separate 
schools  for  those  who  expect  to  prepare  for  the  universities 
and  for  those  who  must  leave  school  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  needed  differentiation  in  preparation  takes  place  in 
the  elementary  schools.  In  the  United  States,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  deferred  to  as  late  a  date  as  possible.  There  is 
practically  one  educational  ladder  for  all  classes.  The 
system  of  separate  schools  for  different  groups  may  be  more 
efficient  in  producing  differentiated  results,  but  it  is  dis- 
tasteful to  the  ideals  of  American  democracy. 

The  Broadening  of  the  Curriculum.— The  scientific 
experiments  of  Roger  Bacon  gleamed  like  a  bright  star  in 
the  dark  sky  of  medieval  ignorance  and  superstition. 
The  various  prophecies  of  his  brilliant  imagination  have 
since  become  facts  of  every  day  experience.  With  the 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  547 

Renaissance   began   the   dawn  of  a  new  era  in  physical 
science.     The  theory  of   Copernicus  shattered  the  older 
astronomical  ideas,  while  Galileo,  peering  through 
his  crude  telescope,  dared  to  assert  that  it  was    scientific 


not  the  sun  but  the  earth  which  revolved. 
Scientific  investigation  not  only  continued,  but 
geographical  discoveries  widened  the  field  of  knowledge. 
The  movement  gradually  progressed  until  it  culminated, 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  in  the  development  of  the 
biological  sciences.  This  field  was  brilliantly  investigated 
under  Darwin,  Huxley,  and  Spencer.  The  scientific  move- 
ment also  reflected  itself  in  a  practical  manner  in  a  great 
series  of  mechanical  inventions.  The  steam  engine,  for 
example,  revolutionized  land  and  water  transportation,  as 
well  as  the  methods  of  manufacturing.  Modern  life  has 
been  transformed  by  the  application  of  steam  and  elec- 
tricity to  industry.  As  in  the  days  of  the  Renaissance,  the 
human  intellect  has  been  reborn. 

The  scientific  movement  not  only  affected  industry,  but 
also  education.  Through  its  influence  the  content  of  lib- 
eral education  began  to  expand,  and  numerous  ineduca- 
new  studies  clamored  for  admission  into  the  twn' 
curriculum.  In  his  essay  upon  education,  Herbert  Spencer 
threw  down  the  gauntlet  to  conservatives  and  boldly  asked 
the  question,  "What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth?"  After 
discussing  various  aims,  he  answers  this  question  by  declar- 
ing that  education  should  be  a  practical  preparation  for 
life.  "How  to  live?  —  that  is  the  essential  question  for 
us."  In  his  enumeration  of  the  studies  conducive  to  that 
end,  the  sciences  take  a  commanding  position.  The 
so-called  cultural  subjects  are  not  entirely  eliminated,  but 
are  relegated  to  the  leisure  time  of  life  and,  therefore,  of 


548  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

education.  Thomas  Huxley  also  advocated  the  value  of 
the  sciences  in  comparison  with  the  traditional  study  of 
the  classics.  Not  only  is  a  knowledge  of  science  valuable, 
but  the  training  in  scientific  method  is  most  important. 
Thus,  science  in  one  form  or  another  has  found  its  way 
into  an  assured  place  in  the  curriculum,  not  only  of  the 
secondary  schools,  but  also  of  the  elementary  schools. 
Physics  and  chemistry  are  taught  in  the  high  schools,  in 
addition  to  mathematics  and  the  classics.  In  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  geography,  physiology,  and  nature  study 
find  a  place  beside  the  "three  R's."  Meanwhile,  courses 
in  the  modern  sciences  had  already  found  their  way  into 
the  colleges  and  universities.  Great  scientific  and  tech- 
nical schools  have  been  founded  for  instruction  in  engi- 
neering, chemistry,  and  industry. 

One  other  effect  of  the  scientific  movement  in  education 
must  be  mentioned.     When  the  scientific  method  of  obser- 
vation and  experimentation  was  directed  toward 

In  methods.  .        , 

education  itself,  great  changes  took  place  in  the 
method  of  teaching  and  in  school  administration.  Many 
accepted  methods  were  found,  in  the  light  of  scientific  tests, 
to  represent  merely  traditional  ideas.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  psychology,  education  became  a  science  as  well  as 
a  practical  art.  The  popular  cry  for  efficiency  has  been 
echoed  from  industry  to  education.  The  old-fashioned 
schoolmaster  and  the  "little  red  school  house"  of  our  par- 
ents are  passing  into  history.  Changes  are  taking  place 
so  rapidly  as  to  be  bewildering.  The  "fad"  evil  is  com- 
mon to  periods  of  transition,  and  mere  radicalism  must  not 
be  interpreted  as  progress.  However,  the  new  problems 
of  a  new  age  always  require  educational  readjustment. 
In  conclusion,  we  may  state  that  the  scientific  movement 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  549 

of  the  nineteenth  century  has  been  characterized  by  a  great 
increase  in  the  content  of  education,  by  the  addition  of 
the  natural  sciences,  and  also  by  great  changes  in  methods 
and  in  school  administration. 

The  sociological  movement  in  education  grew  out  of  the 
scientific.     It  answers  the  question  "What  knowledge  is  of 
most  worth?"  by  emphasizing  the  importance 
of  that  knowledge  which  fits  the  individual  to    The 

.        sociological 

meet  the  needs  of  his  social  and  economic  tendency, 
environment.  The  aim  is  social  rather  than 
individual.  Upon  its  theoretical  side,  it  would  add  to  the 
curriculum  the  social  as  well  as  the  natural  sciences.  Thus, 
in  higher  education  the  social  sciences  have  taken  a  most 
important  place  in  the  curriculum.  Economics  has  found 
its  way  down  into  the  secondary  schools,  and  civics  into 
the  elementary  schools.  Sociology  itself,  in  the  form  of  a 
study  of  concrete  social  problems,  is  now  being  incorporated 
into  the  high  school  curriculum.  On  its  practical  side,  the 
sociological  view  of  education  adds  to  the  curriculum 
vocational  training  for  those  pupils  who  must  soon  join 
the  ranks  of  wage  earners.  This  ideal  of  education  aims 
to  prepare  the  individual  for  his  economic  and  social 
environment  by  means  of  industrial  education,  com- 
mercial training,  or  agricultural  instruction. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  educational  movements  of 
to-day  is  the  development  of  vocational  training.     This 
may  take  three  forms:    (i)  industrial,  (2)  com-    Vocationai 
mercial,  and  (3)  agricultural.     Under  the  older    training: 

-  .,..,,  Industrial. 

system    of    industry,    the    individual    passed 
through   the   stage    of   apprenticeship,    wherein   he   was 
taught  by  the  master  of  the  shop  all  phases  of  his  future 
occupation.     Following  the  Industrial  Revolution  and  the 


550  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

development  of  the  factory  system,  this  method  of  "learning 
a  trade"  gradually  declined.  At  present,  the  work  of  a 
factory  employee  is  generally  limited  to  a  single  process, 
and  only  occasionally  does  the  employer  attempt  to 
broaden  the  knowledge  of  the  workers.  Hence  the  school, 
an  outside  agency,  has  been  called  upon  to  meet  the 
demands  of  industrial  education.  Many  states  of  Europe 
have  had  training  of  this  sort  for  half  a  century.  In 
Germany,  continuation  schools  have  been  successful.  A 
continuation  school  is  so  called  because  in  it  education  is 
continued  after  the  pupil  discontinues  regular  school  ses- 
sions. The  employee  is  permitted  by  his  employer  to 
return  to  school  a  certain  number  of  hours  each  week. 
Many  localities  have  made  such  attendance  compulsory  for 
all  apprentices  up  to  the  age  of  eighteen  and  have  required 
the  employers  to  grant  them  time  for  such  study.  Not 
only  is  training  provided  for  the  lower  grades  of  artisans, 
but  instruction  is  given  to  foremen,  superintendents,  and 
technical  clerks. 

Industrial  education  in  our  own  country  appeared  later 
than  in  Europe.  Real  skill  and  technical  knowledge  were 
needed,  under  the  stress  of  international  competition,  for 
industrial  supremacy.  The  earliest  industrial  schools  in 
America  were  founded  by  private  philanthropy  or  as  a 
result  of  individual  experiment.  In  the  twentieth  century, 
however,  they  appeared  as  an  integral  part  of  the  public 
school  system.  Trade  schools  have  been  established  in 
numerous  cities,  while  continuation  classes  have  sometimes 
been  inaugurated  in  connection  with  compulsory  education 
laws.  Thus,  the  recent  law  of  Pennsylvania  requires 
partial  school  attendance  for  employees  between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age.  Manual  training  courses  had 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  551 

already  been  established  in  secondary  schools  and  have 
even  appeared  lately  in  the  more  elementary  grades. 
The  purpose  of  manual  training  instruction,  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  trade  schools,  is  to  offer  the  student  general 
industrial  training  rather  than  to  prepare  him  for  any 
particular  occupation. 

Vocational  training  has  not  been  altogether  industrial. 
With  the  great  expansion  of  commerce,  as  well  as  of 
manufacturing,  came  the  demand  for  a  thorough  commercial 
preparation  for  a  business  career.  Only  of  schools- 
recent  years,  in  the  United  States,  has  this  phase  of  educa- 
tion come  to  be  regarded  as  a  function  of  our  public  school 
system,  which,  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  stressed  the  purely  traditional  side  of 
education.  At  the  present  time,  however,  commercial 
courses  have  won  a  recognized  place  in  our  scheme  of 
public  education.  In  England,  in  spite  of  her  dominating 
position  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  commercial  education 
has  been  but  a  recent  development.  In  our  own  country, 
the  early  history  of  commercial  education  was  the  usual 
story  of  private  enterprise  fulfilling  a  public  need.  Indeed, 
at  the  present  time,  business  schools  and  other  such  private 
institutions  number  about  one-half  of  all  students  of  com- 
mercial education.  Finally,  the  insistent  demand  for  a 
modern  type  of  education  won  the  recognition  of  public 
school  authorities.  Since  the  opening  of  the  present 
century,  great  progress  in  this  type  of  education  has  been 
made.  Commercial  courses,  as  well  as  the  manual  training, 
have  been  added  to  the  older  and  more  purely  academic 
high  school  curriculum.  By  recognizing  the  divergent 
needs  of  the  various  students  who  attend  American  public 
high  schools,  secondary  education  is  no  longer  exclusively 


552  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

a  merely  traditional  preparation  for  a  classical  college 
career.  In  fact,  the  universities  themselves  have  long  since 
recognized  the  need  of  practical  education.  Not  only 
their  splendid  engineering  schools,  but  also  their  widely 
attended  courses  in  finance  and  commerce,  bear  eloquent 
witness  to  the  great  educational  adjustments  made  by  our 
American  universities. 

Another  aspect  of  vocational  education  is  the  agricul- 
tural. In  1862,  Congress  appropriated  lands  in  every 
Agricultural  state,  amounting  to  millions  of  acres,  for  the 
promotion  of  education.  Because  of  the  obvious 
needs  of  national  life,  it  was  stipulated  that  agricultural 
education  should  be  emphasized  in  the  schools  thus  founded. 
Nearly  all  our  states,  therefore,  have  established  colleges 
which  receive  public  support  and  which  provide  means  of 
agricultural  instruction.  The  need  for  such  training  is 
great  because  the  United  States  is  still  primarily  an  agri- 
cultural nation,  and  her  present  methods  of  farming  are 
often  wasteful  and  inadequate.  In  many  rural  communities 
agricultural  courses  in  high  schools  have  been  organized, 
and  the  movement  is  even  taking  root  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  system.  Not  only  has  agricultural  edu- 
cation resulted  in  more  efficient  methods  of  farming,  but 
it  has  also  stimulated  an  interest  in  country  life  and  its 
opportunities.  In  many  rural  communities  the  school  has 
become,  for  the  surrounding  farmers,  a  cooperative  center 
where  soils  are  tested,  the  results  of  experiments  shown, 
and  a  general  knowledge  of  scientific  farming  disseminated. 

Recent  Tendencies. — Vocational  education  is  but  one 
illustration  of  the  increasing  social  service  performed  by  the 
school.  For  those  who  are  too  old  to  attend  day  sessions, 
the  elementary  system  provides  night  schools,  where  immi- 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  553 

grants  learn  to  read  and  write  the  English  language,  and 
where  the  foundations  of  American  citizenship  are  laid. 
High  schools  have  their  evening  courses  for  the  social 
more  advanced  student,  while  the  univer-  activities- 
sity  extension  movement  and  the  evening  college  courses 
afford  development  for  minds  even  more  matured.  In  fact, 
the  educational  opportunities  of  the  present  age  are  so  great 
that  no  excuse  exists  for  general  ignorance.  The  functions 
of  the  school  have  likewise  increased.  Playgrounds  are  now 
frequently  operated  in  connection  with  the  public  school 
system  and  afford  opportunities  for  recreation  in  the  con- 
gested areas  of  the  cities.  School  gardens  have  also  been 
opened.  Again,  modern  administrative  school  methods 
have  provided  special  schools  and  classes  for  the  mentally 
deficient.  Many  cities  not  only  maintain  open  air  classes 
for  tubercular  children,  but  also  look  after  the  education  of 
the  deaf  and  the  blind.  Free  medical  and  dental  service 
is  provided  for  the  poorer  pupils,  while  many  school  systems 
even  employ  a  special  corps  of  trained  nurses.  School 
lunches  are  frequently  served  at  cost  to  the  pupils,  or  fur- 
nished free  to  the  poorer  children  in  immigrant  sections. 
Social  service  has  become  a  department  of  the  schools,  as 
well  as  of  the  hospitals.  The  attendance  officers  of  the 
department  of  compulsory  education  cooperate  with  the 
probation  officers  of  the  juvenile  courts  to  check  the  crim- 
inal careers  of  youthful  law  breakers. 

Another  educational  development  of  social  importance 
is  what  is  known  as  the  "Home  and  School  Movement." 
It  seeks  not  only  to  bring  the  parents  of  the  chil-    Home  and 
dren  into  closer  touch  with  the  work  of  the    School 

.  .          Movement. 

school,  but  also  to  acquaint  the  teacher  with 

the  social  background  of  the  pupils.     In  some  communities 


554 


Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 


the  school  house  has  become  a  social  center.  Here  the  people 
of  the  community  gather  to  listen  to  lectures  on  present-day 
topics,  or  to  enjoy  some  kind  of  dramatic  or  musical  enter- 
tainment. While  community  singing  is  still  new  in 
America,  it  has  nevertheless  met  with  great  success  in  social 
centers  frequented  by  the  music-loving  immigrants.  Athletic 
contests,  classes  in  gymnastics,  and  even  folk  dancing  have 
been  held  in  these  centers.  In  some  sections,  where  the 
community  spirit  is  strong,  ''sociables'*  and  educational 


A  RURAL  SCHOOL  IN  A  BACKWARD  DISTRICT 


amusements  have  been  planned.  Since  the  school  plant 
is  public  property,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should 
not  be  used  more  frequently  for  community  functions. 

In  addition  to  the  public  school,  there  are  numerous 
other  institutions  of  an  educational  character.  Foremost 
among  these  is  the  public  library.  In  this  form 
of  P^nthropy,  Andrew  Carnegie  took  the  lead, 
having  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  fortune  to  the 
building  of  public  libraries.  Here  the  leading  magazines 


other 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy 


555 


are  on  file,  and  books  of  fiction,  travel,  and  scientific  knowl- 
edge may  be  read.  The  newspaper  has  been  a  great  means 
of  popularizing  education  by  the  dissemination  of  informa- 
tion. The  sensational  journal,  however,  is  more  per- 
nicious than  valuable,  for  stories  of  scandal  and  details  of 
harrowing  crime  exercise  a  most  baneful  influence  on  the 
public  mind.  Museums  and  art  galleries  constitute 


A  MODERN  RURAL  SCHOOL 


another  educational  agency.  Since  good  pictures  ha,ve 
great  educational  and  moral  value,  many  cities  have  estab- 
lished public  galleries  and  museums.  Here  are  exhibited 
not  only  works  of  art,  but  scenes  and  products  of  far  dis- 
tant places.  Industrial  exhibits,  showing  the  stages  in  the 
production  of  various  commodities,  have  also  been  intro- 
duced. Zoological  gardens  and  city  aquariums  may  like- 


556  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

wise  be  mentioned  as  containing  specimens  of  animal  life 
both  interesting  and  instructive  to  the  general  public. 

Educational  readjustment  is  the  outstanding  feature  of 

the  recent  trend  of  educational  development.     It  may  be 

well  to  summarize  here  the  causes  and  evidences 

Educa- 
tional read-    of   the  progress  made  in   this  direction.     One 

evidence  of  educational  readjustment  is  the 
growing  content  of  the  curriculum.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  great  development  of  the  natural  and  social 
sciences.  Since  the  sum  total  of  human  knowledge  is 
constantly  increasing,  each  age  must  decide  for  itself 
what  knowledge  is  of  most  worth.  Educational  readjust- 
ment is  one  indication  of  intellectual  progress,  for  static 
societies  abhor  educational  changes.  Again,  methods  of 
teaching  and  progress  in  school  administration  are  keeping 
pace  with  the  growth  of  the  science  of  education.  But  the 
most  important  factor  in  educational  readjustment  is  the 
spread  of  the  spirit  of  democracy.  Education  for  all  is  the 
modern  ideal,  for  education  itself  is  both  a  cause  and  a  result 
of  democracy.  The  need  of  "the  classes"  is  not  that  of 
''the  masses":  the  educational  ideals  of  the  aristocracy  of 
yesterday  are  not  the  democratic  ideals  of  to-day.  Conse- 
quently, the  curricula  and  the  courses  of  modern  public 
schools  have  expanded  far  beyond  the  straight  and  narrow 
path  of  antiquity,  that  led  to  "culture"  and  a  "liberal 
education."  Thus,  we  have  seen  the  enormous  commercial 
and  industrial  development  of  the  past  century  reflect  itself 
in  educational  changes.  Industrial  society  feels  the  need  of 
intelligent  workers,  and  the  present  generation  asks  for  that 
type  of  education  which  will  best  prepare  it  for  the  prac- 
tical duties  of  every-day  life.  Therefore,  vocational  courses 
are  demanded  by  this  work-a-day  world. 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  557 

A  final  factor  in  educational  readjustment  is  the  growth 
of  the  social  ideal.  The  individualistic  tendencies  of  the 
past  must  give  way  to  the  training  for  group  The  social 
life  and  for  democratic  citizenship.  Such  an  ' 
ideal  necessitates  changes  not  only  in  subject  matter,  but 
also  in  school  government.  Courses  in  civic  and  social 
problems  are  splendid  aids  to  good  citizenship,  but  they 
must  be  supplemented  by  student  activities.  We  learn 
good  citizenship  by  trying  to  carry  out  its  principles, 
rather  than  by  studying  them.  We  can  learn  democracy 
only  by  practicing  it  in  our  daily  lives.  If  the  social  ideal 
within  us  does  not  find  expression  in  some  constructive 
work,  it  soon  languishes.  No  student  is  too  young  to 
engage  in  some  humble  cooperative  task  or  civic  work. 
The  school  itself  is  a  community  in  which  the  student 
should  learn  the  principle  of  self-restraint  for  the  good  of 
the  greatest  number.  Discipline  imposed  from  above  may 
at  times  be  necessary,  but  it  is  a  poor  substitute  for  student 
self-government.  School  spirit  in  the  youthful  soul  is 
akin  to  the  patriotism  of  maturity.  It  should  be  fostered 
not  merely  as  an  emotional  sentiment,  but  also  as  a 
rational  means  of  social  control. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Trace  the  development  of  national  school  systems  in  Europe. 

2.  How  has  the  progress  of  democracy  stimulated  this  movement? 

3.  Compare  the  present  school  systems  (elementary,  secondary, 
and  higher)  of  England,  France,  and  Germany  with  our  own. 

4.  Discuss  education  in  colonial  America. 

5.  Sketch  our  educational  progress  in  the  last  century. 

6.  Give  the  effect  of  the  scientific  movement  upon  education. 

7.  Explain  the  sociological  tendency  in  education. 

8.  Discuss  the  industrial  education  and  the  continuation  schools 
of  Germany. 


Problems  of  American  Democracy 

9.  What  is  the  United  States  doing  in  this  respect? 

10.  Show  the  progress  of  commercial  education  in  the  United 
States. 

11.  Discuss  the  value  of  agricultural  schools. 

12.  Enumerate  the  social  activities  of  the  school. 

13.  What  agencies  for  social  betterment  are  now  cooperating  with 
the  school? 

14.  Describe  the  work  and  possibilities  of  a  school  used  as  a 
community  center. 

15.  Name  some  other  agencies  for  popular  education? 

16.  Describe  the  work  of  the  one  in  which  you  are  most  interested. 

17.  Summarize  the  causes  that  have  made  educational  readjust- 
ment necessary. 

18.  Apply  the  social  ideal  of  education  to  school  administration. 

19.  Describe  the  work  of  some  student-governing  body  in  your 
school. 

20.  Defend  or  criticize  the  placing  of  this  course  in  problems  of 
democracy  in  your  curriculum. 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  The  old  Chinese  system  of  education. 

2.  Cultural    ideals    in  education — origin,  growth,  and  present 
status. 

3.  Student  life  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

4.  Some  famous  public  schools  of  England. 

5.  Educational  institutions  of  Germany — (e.  g.,  Gymnasia  and 
Realschule). 

6.  The  secularization  of  the  schools  of  Europe — (e.  g.,  in  France). 

7.  Democratic  ideals  in  American  education. 
S.  Linking  the  school  with  industry. 

9.  The  Home  and  School  Movement  in  your  community. 
10.  Pioneers  in  modern  educational  movements. 

REFERENCES 

BOONE,  R.  G.    Education  in  the  United,  States. 

BURCH,  H.  R.     The  Economic  and  Social  Side  of  the  School  Curriculum. 

DEWEY,  J.     Democracy  and  Education. 


Public  Education  in  a  Democracy  559 

DEWEY,  J.    Schools  of  To-Morrow. 

GILLETTE,  J.  M.     Vocational  Education. 

GRAVES,  F.  P.    A  History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times. 

GRAVES,  F.  P.    A  Student's  History  of  Education. 

KING,  I.    Education  for  Social  Efficiency. 

MONROE,  P.    A  Brief  History  of  Education.    Chapters  I  to  VII  and 

XII  to  XIV. 
SPENCER,  H.    Education. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  WIDENING  MORALITY  AND  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

I.  The  evolution  of  morality 

1.  Its  instinctive  basis 

2.  Its  social  origin 

3.  Group  standards 

4.  Stages  of  progress 

5.  Society  and  the  individual 

6.  The  r6le  of  altruism 
II.  Moral  adjustment 

1.  The  aim  of  adjustment 

2.  Social  morality 

3.  The  Church  and  social  reform 
III.  The  nature  of  progress 

1.  Is  progress  possible? 

2.  Different  interpretations 

3.  Value  of  the  individual 

4.  A  problem  of  adjustment 

5.  Progress  a  two-fold  process 

6.  Conscious  evolution 

The  Evolution  of  Morality. — Morality  may  be  defined 
as  the  code  of  conduct  governing  the  relations  between 
K  individuals.  It  takes  different  forms  with 

instinctive  various  peoples  and  undergoes  changes  through- 
out long  periods  of  time.  Thus  the  morality 
of  the  Japanese  is  different  from  that  of  Americans,  while 
the  conduct  of  civilized  man  is  altogether  at  variance  with 
that  of  primitive  people.  Indeed,  there  may  have  been  a 

560 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        561 

time  in  the  history  of  primitive  society  when  man  was 
unmoral,  that  is,  neither  moral  nor  immoral.  During  this 
period  of  man's  development  his  instincts  were  so  intense 
and  his  mentality  so  undeveloped  that  he  was  probably 
unable  to  formulate  any  definite  standards  of  conduct. 
At  this  time  his  actions  were  largely  instinctive,  that  is,  he 
followed  his  natural  impulses.  In  fact,  some  uncivilized 
tribes  of  to-day  are  not  far  above  this  level,  and  the  conduct 
of  very  young  children,  who  have  as  yet  formed  no  con- 
ceptions of  right  and  wrong,  closely  resembles  that  of 
uncivilized  people.  In  both  of  these  cases  instinct  or  nat- 
ural impulse  plays  the  dominant  part  in  determining  human 
action.  Only  with  the  growth  of  civilization  and  the 
advance  of  education  is  man  enabled  to  exercise  an  effective 
control  over  his  instinctive  actions.  In  this  he  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  lower  animals  in  which  even  such 
admirable  qualities  as  devotion  and  mother  love  are 
based  largely  upon  mere  biological  necessity.  These  must 
therefore  be  regarded  as  instinctive  rather  than  moral 
attributes.  In  conquering  his  anti-social  instincts  man 
has  had  a  long  up-hill  struggle.  Indeed,  even  to-day,  in 
considering  the  morality  of  civilized  man,  this  instinctive 
basis  of  human  conduct  must  not  be  underestimated. 
Man  is  always  struggling  between  good  and  bad  instincts, 
between  desirable  and  undesirable  impulses,  between 
social  and  anti-social  actions. 

With  the  advance  of  civilization  the  instincts  are  largely 
replaced  by  the  human  reason  in  formulating  rules  of  con- 
duct.    Intelligence  becomes  a  factor  in  guiding   its  social 
blind  instinct,  and  progress  is  marked  by  a    ongin* 
greater  use  of  the  intellect  in  making  distinctions  between 
right  and  wrong  actions.     But  early  morality  is  not  only 

KK 


562  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

instinctive;  it  is  also  largely  social  in  character  and  its 
origin  stretches  far  back  into  the  remote  past.  The 
beginnings  of  a  crude  morality  first  resulted  from  the 
necessities  of  group  life.  Men  could  not  live  together 
without  agreeing  upon  certain  rules  of  conduct  for  the 
regulation  of  their  daily  lives.  In  this  manner  there 
developed  that  most  characteristic  of  all  institutions  of 
early  society — the  fixed  customs  or  methods  of  action 
prescribed  for  the  group  by  constant  usage.  The  test 
of  conduct  was  its  effect  upon  the  group.  Whenever 
certain  actions,  of  instinctive  or  chance  origin,  proved 
themselves  to  be  of  value  to  group  survival  they 
became  crystallized  into  fixed  customs.  On  the  other 
hand,  whatever  by  chance  or  experience  proved  harmful  to 
the  group  was  frowned  upon  by  society  and  finally  became 
" taboo."  In  this  manner,  it  frequently  happened  that 
irrational  ideas  based  upon  mere  superstition  became  part 
of  the  fixed  social  tradition. 

We  have  already  seen  that  standards  of  conduct  vary 
among  different  peoples.  The  mores  or  customs  of  the 
Group  grouP  determine  what  is  right  and  what  is 
standards.  wrong  Thus,  cannibalism  is  a  sacred  rite  in 
the  moral  code  of  certain  savage  tribes,  while  the  sacrifice 
to  the  gods  of  youths  and  maidens  was  a  religious  duty 
among  such  an  otherwise  advanced  people  as  the  Aztecs. 
Christian  ethics  commands  "love  your  enemies,"  but 
vengeance  is  the  rule  among  the  heathen  savage.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  moral  code  of  primitive  communistic 
societies  would  not  sanction  our  ethics  of  individual  property 
rights.  Thus  in  static  societies,  where  codes  of  conduct 
are  rigid  and  inflexible,  man's  attitude  toward  conduct  is 
largely  colored  by  the  inherited  ideas  of  his  group.  From 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        563 

this  point  of  view,  an  individual  should  be  called  good  or 
bad  only  in  the  light  of  his  social  environment.  He  is 
considered  the  most  moral  who  best  lives  up  to  the  ethical 
standards  of  his  group — whatever  they  may  be.  Even  the 
greatest  moral  philosophers  of  antiquity,  like  Confucius, 
and  Socrates,  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  their  age 
and  civilization.  Individual  morality  is  a  greater  or  less 
variation  from  the  standards  of  the  group.  Moreover, 
another  social  characteristic  of  morality  lies  in  the  fact 
that  there  may  be  two  separate  standards  of  conduct, — 
one  applicable  to  members  of  the  group  and  another 
applicable  to  outsiders.  Thus  the  savage  might  indis- 
criminately scalp  those  outside  the  group,  but  not  his 
fellow  tribesmen.  Again,  the  colonists  of  America  often, 
regarded  the  Indian  as  an  inferior  creature  who  might  be 
robbed  of  his  lands,  but  they  were  most  scrupulous  in 
their  ethical  relations  toward  each  other.  The  widening 
morality  of  the  present  age  attempts  to  obliterate  this 
distinction  by  formulating  one  code  of  ethics  applicable  to 
all  nations  of  the  world. 

There  are  three  stages  of  progress  in  the  development  of 
morality — the  negative,  the  transitional,  and  the  positive. 
In  early  civilizations  certain  prohibitions — known  stages  of 
as  the  "  taboo  "—are  placed  upon  man's  conduct,  Pr°sress- 
and  obedience  is  secured  through  fear  of  punishment. 
But  a  civilization  founded  upon  mere  prohibition,  like  the 
" taboo"  of  the  savage,  is  necessarily  backward  and 
unreasoning.  It  assumes  that  men  are  too  wicked  or 
ignorant  to  act  positively  for  the  attainment  of  group 
welfare.  Primitive  man  was  forcibly  restrained  from  com- 
mitting certain  actions  inimical  to  group  interests  through 
fear  of  punishment  or  social  ostracism.  In  fact,  our  own 


564  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

method  of  suppressing  crime  by  intimidation  is  a  survival 
of  this  theory  of  morality.  The  next  stage  of  moral 
development  is  an  advance  over  that  of  mere  prohibition. 
When  a  certain  social  custom  was  seen  to  be  partly  good 
and  partly  bad,  some  scheme  of  discrimination  was  devised 
by  the  growing  intelligence.  This  power  of  intellectual 
consideration  showed  that  the  group  had  advanced  in 
its  attitude  toward  human  conduct.  It  may  well  be 
illustrated  by  Roman  civilization,  in  which  the  spirit  of  com- 
promise was  developed  and  handed  down  to  later  genera- 
tions. The  problem  was  looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of 
group  interests,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  arrive  at  a 
•course  of  conduct  best  suited  to  the  general  welfare. 
This  transitional  period  naturally  merged  into  the  positive 
.stage  of  social  morality  in  which  the  restrictions  or  pro- 
hibitions on  human  conduct  play  a  diminishing  r6le.  Here 
society  bends  all  its  efforts  toward  the  attainment  of 
definite  ideals.  Social  progress  toward  this  higher  stage  is, 
however,  retarded  by  the  existence  of  vicious  and  ignorant 
individuals  who  will  not  of  their  own  accord  follow  the 
course  of  action  approved  by  the  group.  At  present  the 
civilized  world  is  standing  on  the  threshold  of  a  still  broader 
morality — a  morality  of  the  world  order.  This  is  the 
international  aspect  of  social  morality.  This  morality  is 
not  only  positive,  striving  for  the  attainment  of  definite 
ideals,  but  also  humanitarian,  endeavoring  to  embrace 
within  its  operation  all  lands  and  peoples. 

The  great  problem  of  modern  morality  is  that  of  recon- 
ciling the  interests  of  the  individual  with  those  of  society. 
The  clash  of  selfish  personal  desires  with  social  interests 
has  been  an  age-long  conflict.  Early  civilizations  in  their 
attempts  to  develop  group  morality  frequently  followed 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        565 

irrational  folkways  which  were  rigidly  enforced  by  law  and 
religion.  Moreover,  with  the  growth  of  social  classes,  the 
few  claimed  the  right  to  decide  what  was  best  . 

Society 

for  the  social  interest.     It  thus  happened  that    and  the 

_  .  .     individual. 

frequently  their  own  ideas  and  interests  colored 
the  social  fabric  of  human  institutions.  Against  these 
traditional  ideas  of  the  dominant  classes,  reformers  and 
prophets  arose  to  preach  the  falsity  of  current  beliefs  and 
practices.  Thus,  Socrates  taught  a  nobler  code  of  ethics 
than  that  of  the  Sophists,  and  the  Founder  of  Christianity 
rebuked  the  Pharisees,  who  followed  the  letter  rather  than 
the  spirit  of  the  law.  Individuals  in  advance  of  their  age 
may  suffer  martyrdom  for  insisting  upon  the  right  to  follow 
the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences  when  these  come 
into  conflict  with  the  accepted  ideas  of  society.  Subse- 
quent history  discloses  whether  or  not  they  have  succeeded 
in  their  attempt  to  advance  the  group  morality  to  a  higher 
level.  However,  those  who  refuse  to  conform  to  the  cur- 
rent morality  may  be  not  only  those  who  rise  above  it, 
but  also  those  who  fall  below  it.  Each  age  has  not  only 
its  reformers,  but  also  those  who  are  egoistic  or  even 
vicious  enough  to  insist  upon  the  acceptance  of  their  own 
point  of  view  irrespective  of  society's  mandates.  In  the 
treatment  of  non-conformists  society  must  choose  between 
a  policy  of  toleration  and  one  of  repression.  An  inflexible 
civilization  deals  out  the  same  fate  alike  to  the  non-con- 
forming idealist  and  to  the  criminal;  for  the  offense  in  both 
cases  is  one  against  group  morality.  A  higher  civiliza- 
tion strives  to  work  out  the  problem  of  how  an  individual 
may  obey  the  moral  code  of  the  group  and  at  the  same  time 
follow  the  dictates  of  his  conscience.  In  this  manner  the 
group  ethics  becomes  less  rigid  and  more  elastic.  A  con- 


566  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

stant  moral  readjustment  must  go  on  in  a  progressive 
society,  the  ideals  of  which  are  ever  advancing. 

Altruism,  or  consideration  for  others,  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  widening  of  morality.  Its  origin  may  be 
The  rdie  of  traced  to  the  biological  fact  of  parenthood  and 
altruism.  to  tke  increasing  length  of  the  period  of  infancy. 
Its  value  in  group  survival  increases  with  the  advance  of 
civilization  because  cooperation  has  proved  to  be  a  favor- 
able element  in  the  process  of  selection  at  work  in  human 
society.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  man  has  had  to 
struggle  not  only  against  his  physical  environment,  but  also 
against  his  fellow  man.  However,  along  with  this  struggle 
for  his  own  existence,  went  man's  struggle  for  the  lives  of 
his  fellows.  Altruism  and  self-interest  have  clashed  at 
times,  but  the  former  has  steadily  increased  in  importance. 
It  has  become  more  purposive  in  modern  society  because  it 
is  directed  by  the  growing  human  intelligence.  Thus  it 
is  that  slavery  has  disappeared  in  all  civilized  lands.  Mod- 
ern altruism  is  content  not  merely  with  temporary  allevia- 
tion of  distress,  but  it  seeks  to  banish  the  very  causes  of 
human  misery.  Again,  the  social  circle  within  which 
altruism  operates  has  constantly  widened,  until  to-day  it 
embraces  the  whole  human  race.  Sympathy  is  felt  not 
only  toward  members  of  the  family  and  those  with  whom 
we  come  into  personal  contact,  but  toward  all  those 
embraced  within  the  nation.  Indeed  sympathy  to-day, 
like  culture  and  commerce,  is  international  in  its 
manifestations.  Generous  help  is  extended  to  far- 
distant  peoples  in  distress,  as  well  as  to  those  within 
our  own  national  boundaries.  Patriotism  or  love  of 
country  is  an  intensely  national  aspect  of  altruism  and 
cooperation. 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        567 

Moral  Adjustment.— If  civilization  is  not  to  remain 
static,  moral  ideas  must  become  more  rational  with  every 
period  of  historical  evolution.  To  attain  higher  The  aim  of 
levels  of  morality  constant  readjustments  are  adJustment- 
therefore  necessary.  Viewed  in  this  light,  the  moral  sys- 
tems of  the  past  represented  the  attempts  of  their  foun- 
ders to  bring  the  group  morality  up  to  the  standard  of  the 
new  social  ideals.  The  process  of  adjustment  was  some- 
times evolutionary,  and  sometimes  revolutionary.  At 
the  present  time,  society  is  attempting  to  develop  a  positive 
system  of  group  morality  in  which  each  individual  plays 
an  active  part.  The  primitive  "taboo"  of  early  society 
may  be  well  enough  for  ignorant  savagery,  but  it  is  essen- 
tially antagonistic  to  modern  social  ideals.  The  morality 
of  freedom  should  supersede  that  of  compulsion  without 
danger  to  the  social  order.  This  development  is  rendered 
difficult,  however,  by  the  growing  complexity  of  society 
and  by  the  multiplicity  of  human  relationships.  The  indi- 
vidual must  exercise  an  intelligent  discrimination  against 
acts  harmful  to  the  social  welfare.  He  must  seek  not 
merely  to  avoid  a  penalty,  but  rather  to  attain  the  happiness 
which  lies  in  social  well-being.  This  ideal  is  becoming  the 
new  basis  of  social  progress.  It  believes  in  the  realization 
of  the  possibilities  of  group  action.  .  According  to  this 
belief,  it  is  the  duty  of  society  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible 
social  and  economic  handicaps  in  order  that  man  may 
attain  free  development  and  the  highest  happiness.  This 
objective  method  may  be  known  as  the  improvement  of 
man's  environment.  From  the  subjective  side,  the  highest 
social  ideals  should  be  impressed  upon  the  heart  and  mind 
of  the  growing  individual. 

Thus  a  social  morality  of  an  ever-widening  character 


568  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

is  the  great  need  of  the  present  age.  In  earlier  times  it  was 
thought  proper  for  the  individual  to  flee  from  the  wicked- 
Social  ness  of  the  world  in  order  to  save  his  own  soul, 
morality.  jn  tne  twentieth  century,  such  conduct  would  be 
regarded  as  purely  negative  in  the  social  good  accom- 
plished. Social  morality,  however,  does  not  underestimate 
individual  goodness.  Virtue  is  personal  and  a  society  can 
be  only  as  moral  as  the  individuals  composing  it.  The 
modern  view  of  morality  does,  however,  estimate  the  good- 
ness or  badness  of  an  act  by  its  social,  rather  than  its  indi- 
vidual, consequences.  Thus,  a  crime  against  society  is  of 
more  social  significance  than  an  individual  vice,  although 
society  does  not,  for  a  single  instant,  condone  the  act  of 
vice.  When  men  lived  in  comparative  isolation,  a  social 
morality  was  not  so  imperative.  The  modern  age,  however, 
is  as  social  as  our  civilization  is  cosmopolitan.  Morality, 
like  culture,  is  becoming  international  in  character.  The 
widening  of  commercial  relations  broadens  the  intellectual 
horizon  and  tends  toward  the  development  of  uniform 
moral  standards.  But,  although  division  of  labor  in  mod- 
ern industrial  society  makes  individuals  mutually  depen- 
dent upon  each  othtr,  this  interdependence  is  remote  and 
indirect.  We  have,  for  example,  little  direct  communica- 
tion with  those  who  manufacture  our  foods,  build  our 
houses,  and  make  our  laws.  Who  indeed,  to-day,  is  our 
neighbor?  He  is  invisible  but  effective.  Hence  the  need 
of  a  wider  and  more  far-reaching  social  morality.  Men 
may  hesitate  to  rob  orphans  and  widows,  but  they 
unblushingly  sell  goods  of  an  inferior  quality  to  the 
general  public.  The  long-range  crimes  of  the  present 
century  make  necessary,  therefore,  a  similar  long-range 
morality.  In  conclusion,  let  us  state  that  the  widen- 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress       569 

ing  social  morality  insists  that  a  man  is  his  brother's 
keeper  and  interprets  in  the  widest  possible  sense  the 
term  "brother." 

The  Great  Teacher,  in  defining  the  greatest  law,  added 
the  corollary  "Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself."  We  are 
at  present  still  far  removed  from  this  exalted  , 

Tne  Cnurcn 

ideal   of   humanitarianism;   nor  have   we   yet   and  social 

reform. 

attained  the  new  world  order.  The  Church, 
however,  has  always  been  a  philanthropic  institution.  Let 
us  not  forget  that  the  ^medieval  monks  performed  pioneer 
social  work.  By  practical  example,  they  taught  the  dignity 
of  manual  labor,  as  well  as  the  art  of  philanthropy.  Mon- 
asteries were  retreats  for  the  sick  of  body,  as  well  as  for  the 
sick  of  heart.  Here  were  received  the  weary  traveler,  the 
orphan,  and  the  pauper.  With  the  Renaissance  and  the 
breaking  up  of  the  medieval  system,  the  spirit  of  indi- 
vidualism wrought  changes  in  religious  ideals.  The  prin- 
ciple of  authority  gradually  gave  way  to  that  of  individual 
responsibility  in  which  the  direct  relationship  between  God 
and  man  was  emphasized.  At  present,  too,  it  would  seem 
that  the  Church  is  going  through  another  period  of  read- 
justment, in  which  character  rather  than  creed  occupies 
the  dominating  position.  Sectarianism  declines  with  the 
rise  of  the  ideal  of  social  service.  Thus  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury witnesses  the  Church  fulfilling  the  mission  of  its 
Founder,  spreading  its  altruistic  spirit  throughout  society, 
and  cementing  once  more  the  broken  fabric  of  civilization. 
To  accomplish  this  end,  it  becomes  the  stanch  ally  of  the 
family,  the  school,  arid  the  State,  in  their  combined  attack 
upon  the  obstacles  that  lie  in  the  path  of  human  progress. 
The  Church,  itself,  instills  into  this  work  of  regeneration 
the  vital  spirit  of  hope  and  human  sympathy. 


570  Problems  of  A  merican  Democracy 

The  Nature  of  Progress. — Aside  from  the  problem 
of  immediate  social  reform,  what  are  the  possibilities  of 
is  progress  ultimate  human  progress?  Our  answer  to  this 
possible?  question  will  depend  upon  our  attitude  toward 
the  idea  of  progress.  This  term  has  been  variously  inter- 
preted by  different  writers,  and,  indeed,  some  have  even 
denied  the  existence  of  progress.  For  proof  of  their  posi- 
tion they  point  to  the  welter  of  confusion  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  life  and  property  that  followed  the  world  cataclysm 
of  1914,  which  almost  resulted  in  the  prostration  of  civil- 
ized Christendom.  Again,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  such 
an  eminent  essayist  as  John  Ruskin  regarded  the  great 
Industrial  Revolution,  through  which  England  had  just 
passed,  as  a  step  backward  rather  than  forward,  for  the 
majority  of  mankind.  Admitting  that  the  advance  of 
civilization  is  uneven,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  march  of  centuries  has  not  been  marked  by  a  progres- 
sive, if  uneven,  development. 

On  the  contrary,  it  seems  rational  to  assert  that  society 
has  progressed  in  a  certain  orderly  fashion  from  prehistoric 
Different  ^ays  to  t^ie  Present  tmie-  One  group  of  writers 
tatfons6"  W^°  ta^e  ^is  P°int  °f  ^ew  are  called  evolu- 
tionists. They  look  at  the  problem  of  social 
progress  from  the  standpoint  of  selection  and  adaptation. 
To  some  it  is  an  unconscious  and  undirected  process  in 
which  natural  selection  is  the  determining  factor.  Hence 
they  deny  all  moral  implications  in  the  process.  To  them 
progress  is  the  result  of  a  favorable  geographical  environ- 
ment, endowed  with  a  temperate  climate,  sufficient  rainfall, 
and  abundant  natural  resources.  They  are  known  as  geo- 
graphical determinists  and  would  give  us  a  purely  economic 
interpretation  of  history.  Other  interpreters  of  progress 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        571 

stress  heredity,  rather  than  environment,  as  the  dominating 
factor  in  the  advance  of  society.  According  to  these 
writers  certain  races,  representing  superior  biological 
stocks,  have  through  their  contributions  to  civilization 
made  possible  the  accumulated  progress  of  society. 
Through  their  military  and  peaceful  conquests,  the  advance 
of  backward  races  and  of  the  world  in  general  has  been 
accomplished.  Within  a  particular  group  itself  these 
biological  differences  are  also  discernible.  Hence  certain 
individuals  possessed  of  superior  physical  and  mental 
qualities  are  enabled  through  intermarriage  to  transmit 
these  qualities,  which  form  the  basis  for  future  progress,  to 
succeeding  generations.  Such  prophets  of  progress  are 
known  as  eugenists. 

Again,  other  writers  have  interpreted  and  explained 
progress  in  terms  of  dominant  men  and  great  institutions. 
It  is  well  to  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  impor- 


tance  of  the  individual  in  determining  the  course    the  in- 

dividual. 

of  human  progress.  The  power  of  the  individual 
in  shaping  social  institutions  is  a  vital  factor  in  social 
progress  as  well  as  in  the  formation  of  moral  systems. 
In  fact,  the  basis  of  human  progress  is  the  individual. 
In  his  Representative  Men,  Emerson  goes  so  far  as  to  assert 
that  an  institution  is  but  the  lengthened  shadow  of  a  single 
individual.  It  is  beyond  question  that  the  personal  element 
or  equation  is  a  vital  factor  in  the  attainment  of  both 
progress  and  social  morality.  In  his  Heroes  and  Hero 
Worship,  Carlyle  has  expounded,  with  perhaps  undue 
elaboration,  the  "  great  man  theory'7  of  history  and 
progress. 

The  student  may  well  be  confused  by  such  a  variety  of 
interpretations  of  human  progress  in  each  of  which  there  is 


572  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

an  element  of  truth  and  justice.     Perhaps  these  elements 

may  best  be  combined  by  regarding  progress  from  still 

another  point  of  view.    In  our  survey  of  the  more 

A  problem 

of  adjust-     important  problems  of  American  democracy  we 

ment.  .  r        ,. 

have  viewed  progress  as  a  series  01  adjust- 
ments. Obstacles  in  the  upward  path  of  society  have 
been  treated  as  economic  and  moral  handicaps  which  the 
State  attempts  to  remove  by  the  force  of  cooperation  and 
other  human  inventions.  In  this  process  the  State  itself 
has  suffered  changes  and  improvements,  for  never  has  a 
perfect  commonwealth  been  reared  by  the  efforts  of  man. 
As  society  progresses,  social  ideals  are  constantly  advanc- 
ing. The  problems  of  one  age  are  succeeded  by  those  of 
another,  the  solution  of  which  results  in  the  attainment  of 
higher  progress.  George  Eliot  has  said  that  the  chief 
reward  of  virtue  is  an  increased  capacity  for  being  good. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  chief  result  of  successive  progres- 
sive adjustments  is  the  ability  of  society  to  attain  higher 
levels  of  progress. 

In  viewing  the  problem  of  progress  from  the  standpoint 
of  social  adjustment,  we  have  observed  the  constant 
Progress  operation  of  the  twin  forces  of  heredity  and 
p^ess?ld  environment-  Undoubtedly  one  method  of 

furthering  progress  in  American  democracy  lies 
in  the  improvement  of  the  biological  or  physical  heredity 
of  the  nation.  This  may  be  accomplished  through  a 
careful  selective  process  and  through  the  sane  application 
of  eugenic  principles  to  society.  Not  only  should  the 
biological  stocks  at  present  within  the  nation  be  subjected 
to  the  process  of  selection,  but  this  process  should  be 
applied  to  those  foreign  peoples  seeking  admittance  to  our 
shores.  Without  passing  judgment  upon  the  abstract 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        573 

question  of  race  superiority,  recent  investigations  in  the 
United  States  seem  to  point  to  the  mental  and  physical 
superiority  of  the  older  American  stocks.  If  this  superiority 
is  to  be  maintained,  the  original  stocks  must  not  be  unduly 
weakened  or  contaminated.  Viewing  social  progress  from 
the  standpoint  of  improvements  in  the  environment,  we 
have  observed  in  the  course  of  our  study  how  the  life  of  a 
people  is  profoundly  influenced  by  both  physical  and  social 
surroundings.  On  the  physical  side,  man's  conquest  of 
nature  has  steadily  advanced.  Primitive  man  fled  in 
terror  from  the  very  elements  which  civilized  man  has 
harnessed  at  his  bidding.  On  the  social  side  also,  man's 
environment  has  constantly  improved  and  widened.  No 
longer  are  men  bound  by  outworn  traditions  which  at 
every  turn  hamper  the  attainment  of  progress.  A  new 
call  to  arms  has  been  sounded  against  poverty,  disease, 
political  corruption,  and  economic  exploitation.  Through 
education,  the  social  environment  of  many  Americans  is 
being  completely  transformed.  Since  most  acquired  char- 
acteristics cannot  be  transmitted,  each  generation  begins 
anew  the  battle  for  progress,  which  in  turn  is  aided  by  the 
progressive  changes  wrought  by  past  generations  in  the 
great  institutions  of  society. 

Finally,  we  must  remember  that  evolution  is  not  neces- 
sarily progress,  but  that  progress  is  conscious  evolution. 
Man  has  moulded  the  original  process  of  evolu-    conscious 
tion  to  suit  the  needs  of  his  modern  environment.    evolution* 
That  is,  in  civilized  societies,  natural  selection  has  largely 
given  way  to  artificial  selection.     In  the  former  process, 
evolution  was  a  blind,  unconscious  adaptation  of  the  organ- 
ism to  the  environment.    Through  variation,  certain  types 
were  found  to  be  better  suited  to  given  conditions  and  their 


574  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

characteristics  were  transmitted  through  heredity  to 
posterity.  Moral  qualities  and  progressive  attributes 
were  merely  the  by-products  of  this  hard,  implacable 
struggle  for  existence.  Artificial  selection,  however,  gives 
to  these  very  qualities  a  dominant  position  in  the 
selective  process.  They  become  true  requisites  of  sur- 
vival. Instinct  gives  way  to  reason,  and  the  individual 
himself  becomes  the  radiating  center  of  moral  and  social 
progress.  He  controls  the  blind  forces  of  nature  and 
directs  the  course  of  human  evolution.  In  this  manner, 
man  becomes  the  responsible,  directive  element  in  social 
progress.  To  this  extent,  he  is  the  master  of  his  fate  and 
the  maker  of  his  destiny. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  part  does  instinct  play  in  human  conduct? 

2.  Trace  the  social  origin  of  morality. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  mores  of  the  group  upon  the  conduct 
of  the  individual? 

4.  Explain  the  stages  in  moral  progress. 

5.  Discuss  two  different  classes  of  individual  non-conformists  to 
the  current  morality  approved  by  the  group. 

6.  What  policies  toward  them  may  society  follow? 

7.  In  what  way  does  modern  altruism  differ  from  the  earlier 
altruism? 

8.  Why  does  progress  necessitate  a  constant  moral  adjustment? 

9.  Why  is  a  social  morality  especially  necessary  for  the  present 
age? 

10.  How  do  you  think  that  it  can  best  be  developed? 
n.  Discuss  the  past  philanthropic  work  of  the  Church. 
12.  What  is  the  Church  now  doing  for  social  welfare? 
13    What  is  your  church  doing?    What  else  can  it  do? 

14.  How  may  the  Church  aid  in  teaching  social  morality? 

15.  Explain  the  economic  interpretation  of  history. 

1 6.  Explain  the  eugenic  interpretation  of  social  progress. 


The  Widening  Morality  and  Social  Progress        575 

17.  Name  and  illustrate  another  theory  of  progress. 

1 8.  Why  is  progress  never-ending? 

19.  What  are  the  twin  forces  of  social  progress?     Explain  each. 

20.  What  do  you  think  of  the  possibilities  of  progress  in  the  future? 

TOPICS  FOR  SPECIAL  REPORT 

1.  Moral  and  religious  ideas  among  the  Indians. 

2.  The  social  ethics  of  some  great  religious  teachers,  like  Buddha 
and  Confucius. 

3.  The  non-conformist  in  history. 

4.  An  analysis  of  the  most  essential  present-day  moral  qualities. 

5.  The  Church  as  a  factor  in  social  progress. 

6.  The  "great  man  theory"  of  history. 

7.  The  World  War  and  social  progress. 

8.  Changing  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  from  century  to  century. 

9.  The  development  of  group  morality  in  America  during  the 
World  War. 

10.  The  progressive  character  of  Christianity  on  both  the  moral 
and  the  religious  side. 

11.  Germany's  false  "Kultur"  idea  of  progress. 

12.  Effects  of  the  Washington  Conference  (ig2i-'22)   on  world 
morality  and  social  progress. 

REFERENCES 

CARVER,  T.  N.     Essays  in  Social  Justice. 

DEALEY,  J.  Q.    Sociology.     Chapter  VII. 

HAYES,  E.  C.    Introduction  to  a  Study  of  Sociology.     Chapter  XXX. 

PATTEN,  S.  N.  •  New  Basis  of  Civilization. 

PATTEN,  S.  N.     The  Social  Basis  of  Religion. 

RICHMOND,  M.    Social  Diagnosis. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Social  Control.     Sin  and  Society. 

STELZLE,  C.     American  Social  and  Religious  Conditions.     Chapter  XI. 

THOMPSON,  R.  E.     The  Divine  Order  of  Human  Society. 

TODD,  A.  J.     Theories  of  Social  Progress. 


APPENDIX 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
PREAMBLE 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  Union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I 

LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENT 
Section  i.     Two  Houses 

I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives. 

Section  2.     House  of  Representatives 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  states,  and  the 
electors  in  each  state  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors1 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  state  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  state  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  states  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according 
to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to 
the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service 

1  Voters. 

576 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  577 

for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all 
other  persons1.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they 
shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  state  shall  have  at  least  one 
Representative;  and,  until  such  enumerations  shall  be  made,  the  state 
of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts 
eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five, 
New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one, 
Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina 
five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  state, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  3.     Senate 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  state  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof2  for  six 
years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as  may  be,  into 
three  classes.    The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year;  of  the  second  class,  at 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year;  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  sixth  year;  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during 
the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  state,  the  executive  thereof  may 
make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legis- 
lature, which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies.3 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 

1  Annulled  by  the  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Amendments. 

2  Superseded  by  the  Seventeenth  Amendment. 

3  See  Seventeenth  Amendment. 

LL 


578  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

States,  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  state 
for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President 
pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 
shall  preside;  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit,  under  the  United  States;  but  the 
party  convicted  shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indict- 
ment, trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  4.     Elections  and  Meetings  of  Congress 

1 .  The  times,  places,  and  manner,  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  state  by  the  legisla- 
ture thereof:  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or 
alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  5.     Powers  and  Duties  of  the  Houses 

1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall 
constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such 
penalties,  as  each  House  may  provide. 

2 .  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  the  proceedings,  punish 
its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  579 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and,  from 
time  to  time,  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may,  in  their 
judgment,  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members *of 
either  House,  on  any  question,  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  6.     Privileges  of  and  Restrictions  on  Members 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the 
treasury  of  the  United  States.     They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest 
during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and 
in  going  to,  and  returning  from,  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or 
debate  in  either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person, 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of 
either  House  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Section  7.     Revenue  Bills :  Veto  of  President 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amend- 
ments as  on  other  bills. 

2 .  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if 
not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.     If,  after  such  reconsideration, 
two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that 
House,  it  shall  become  a  law.     But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 


5  8o  Problems  of  A  merican  Democrat  y 

Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal 
of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the 
President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he 
had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on 
a  question  of  adjournment),  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  8.     Legislative  Powers  of  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power: 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts,  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare, 
of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  shall  be 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States: 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States: 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  states,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes: 

4;  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies,  throughout  the  United  States: 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures: 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  Unites  States: 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads: 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing, 
for  limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries: 

9.    To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court: 
10.    To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies,  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations : 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  581 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water: 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies ;  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years: 

13.  To  pro  vide  and  main  tain  a  navy: 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces: 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions: 

1 6.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  states  respectively  the 
appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia, 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress: 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  states,  and    the    acceptance  of    Congress,  become  the 
seat  of  the   government  of   the   United   States,   and   to   exercise 
like  authority  over  all  places,   purchased  by   the  consent  of  the 
legislature  of  the  state  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful 
buildings : — And 

1 8.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  9.     Prohibitions  upon  the  United  States 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons,  as  any  of  the 
states,  now  existing,  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro- 
hibited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation, 
not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2 .  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  shall  be  passed. 


582  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct  tax,  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  propor- 
tion to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken.1 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  state. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  state  over  those  of  another;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  state,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or 
pay  duties,  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument, 
office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign 
state. 

Section  10.     Prohibitions  upon  the  States 

1.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing 
the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  all  such 
laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress.    No 
state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage, 
keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war,  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agree- 
ment or  compact  with  another  state,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

i  See  Sixteenth  Amendment. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  583 

ARTICLE  II 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT:  THE  PRESIDENT  AND 
VICE-PRESIDENT 

Section  I.    Term:  Election:   Qualifications:  Salary:  Oath  of 

Ofiice 

1.  The  Executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.     He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of 
four  years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

2.  Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  Electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number 
of  Senators  and  Representatives,  to  which  the  state  may  be  entitled  in 
the  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit,  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed 
an  Elector. 

3.  [The  Electors  shall  meet  in  then*  respective  states,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  state  with  themselves.    And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each;  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate.    The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.    The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more  than 
one,  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes, 
then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose,  by 
ballot,  one  of  them  for  President;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then,  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  House  shall,  in  like 
manner,  choose  the  President.    But  in  choosing  the  President,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state 
having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member 
or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.     In  every  case,  after  the  choice 
of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of 


584  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

the  Electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them, 
by  ballot,  the  Vice-President.]1 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  Electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person,  except  a  natural -born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office,  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirt  v- 
five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United 
States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring 
what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act 
accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive,  within  that  period,  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation: 

9.  "I  do  solemly  swear  (or  affirm),  that  I  will  faithfully  execute 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of 
my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States." 

Section  2.    President's  Executive  Powers 

i.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-m-Chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require 

1  Superseded  by  the  Twelfth  Amendment. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  585 

the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive 
departments  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 
offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers, 
and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers 
of  the  United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise 
provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the  Con- 
gress may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as 
they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in 
the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  3.     President's  Executive  Powers  (continued) 

i .  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and 
in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think 
proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he 
shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  com- 
mission all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  4.     Impeachment 

i.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and 
conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misde- 
meanors. 


586  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ARTICLE  HI 
JUDICIAL  DEPARTMENT 

Section  i.     Courts:  Terms  of  Office 

i.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the 
Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a 
compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance 
in  office. 

Section  2.     Jurisdiction 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies 
to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies  bet 

two  or  more  states,  between  a  state  and  citizens  of  another  state,1 
between  citizens  of  different  states,  between  citizens  of  the  same  state 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  states,  and  between  a  state, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  state  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.     In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both 
as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations 
as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  state  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within 
any  state  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may 
by  law  have  directed. 

*  Modified  by  the  Eleventh  Amendment 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  587 

Section  3.    Treason 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort.     No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in 
open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or 
forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV 

RELATIONS  OF  STATES 
Section  i.     Public  Records 

i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  state  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  state.  And  the 
Congress  may,  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  "which  such 
acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  2.     Rights  in  One  State  of  Citizens  of  Another  State 

1 .  The  citizens  of  each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  states.1 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  state  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  state,  shall, 
on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  state  from  which  he  fled, 
be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall 
be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor 
may  be  due. 

Section  3.     New  States :  Territories 

I.    New  states  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union;, 
but  no  new  state  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
1  Compare  Fourteenth  Amendment. 


S88  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

any  other  state,  nor  any  state  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  states,  or  parts  of  states,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures 
of  the  states  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property 
belonging  to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution 
shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States, 
or  of  any  particular  state. 

Section  4.    Protection  to  States  by  the  Nation 

I.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  state  in  this  Union 
a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion;  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the 
executive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic 
violence. 

ARTICLE  V 

AMENDMENT 

i .  The  Congress,  whenever  two- thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  states,  shall 
call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case, 
shall  be  valid,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution, 
when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  states, 
or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress:  provided  that 
no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and 
fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  Article;  and  that  no 
state,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in 
the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI 

NATIONAL  DEBTS:  SUPREMACY  OF  NATIONAL  LAW: 

OATH 

I.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  589 

2 .  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land ;  and  the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  state  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial 
officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  states,  shall  be 
bound,  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to  support  this  Constitution;  but  no 
religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or 
public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII 
ESTABLISHMENT  OF  CONSTITUTION 

i.  The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  states  sljall  be 
sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the 
states  so  ratifying  the  same. 

•w 

AMENDMENTS l 
ARTICLE  I 

FREEDOM   OF  RELIGION,  OF  SPEECH,  AND  OF  THE 
PRESS:  RIGHT  OF  PETITION 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to 
assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II 
RIGHT  TO  KEEP  ARMS 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

i  The  first  ten  Amendments,  known  as  the  Bill  of  Rights,  were  adopted  in  1791. 


59°  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

ARTICLE  III 
QUARTERING  OF  SOLDIERS  IN  PRIVATE  HOUSES 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner;  nor,  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV 

SEARCH  WARRANTS 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated;  and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  sup- 
ported by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V 
CRIMINAL  PROCEEDINGS 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise 
infamous,  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand 
jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war,  or  public  danger;  nor 
shall  any  person  be  subject,  for  the  same  offence,  to  be  twice  put  in 
jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case, 
to  be  a  witness  against  himself;  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or 
property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be 
taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compensation.1 

ARTICLE  VI 
CRIMINAL  PROCEEDINGS  (continued) 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  state  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall 
have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law;  and  to  be  informed  of  the 
nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him;  to  have^compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in 
his  favor;  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

*  See  Amendment  XIV,  Sec.  i,  which  extends  part  of  this  restriction  to  the  States. 


Constitution  of  the  U-nited  States  591 

ARTICLE  VII 
JURY  TRIAL  IN  CIVIL  CASES 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved;  and  no 
fact,  tried  by  a  jury,  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of 
the  United  States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII 
EXCESSIVE  PUNISHMENTS 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX 
UNENUMERATED  RIGHTS  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 
POWERS  RESERVED  TO  STATES 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the  states  respect- 
ively, or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI1 

SUITS  AGAINST  STATES 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citizens 
or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

ARTICLE  XII 
ELECTION  OF  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT 

i.    The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
i  Adopted  in  1798  to  protect  the  sovereignty  of  the  States. 


592  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves;  they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  lists  they  shall  sign,  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the 
seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President 
of  the  Senate;  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates, 
and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if  no 
person  have  such  a  majority,  then,  from  the  persons  having  the  highest 
numbers,  not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  Presi- 
dent, the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by 
ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall 
be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state  having  one 
vote ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
not  choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve 
upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the 
Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  case  of  the  death,  or  other 
constitutional  disability,  of  the  President.1 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent, shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  a 
majority,  then,  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate 
shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall 
consist  of  two- thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators;  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.1 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 

i  Adopted  in  1804,  superseding  Article  II,  Sec- 1. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  593 

ARTICLE  XIII  i 

SLAVERY 
Section  i.     Abolition  of  Slavery 

Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdic- 
tion. 

Section  2.    Power  of  Congress 

Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV 2 

CIVIL  RIGHTS:     APPORTIONMENT   OF  REPRESENTA- 
TIVES:  POLITICAL  DISABILITIES:   PUBLIC  DEBT 

Section  i.     Civil  Rights 

All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  state  wherein  they  reside.  No  state  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States;  nor  shall  any  state  deprive  any  person  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws, 

Section  2.    Apportionment  of  Representatives 

Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of 
persons  in  each  state,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the 
right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the 
executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  state,  or  the  members  of  the  legis- 
lature thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  state, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 

1  Adopted  in  1865. 

2  Adopted  in  1868. 

MM 


594  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  pro- 
portion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  state. 

Section  3.     Political  Disabilities 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Represenative  in  Congress,  or 
elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  state,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 
the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  state  legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  state,  to  support  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof. 
But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove 
such  disability. 

Section  4.     Public  Debt 

The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties 
for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  state  shall  assume 
or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or 
emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and 
claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.    Powers  of  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legisla- 
tion, the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV  * 

RIGHT  OF  SUFFRAGE 

Section  i.    Right  of  Negro  to  Vote 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  state  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

i  Adopted  in  1870. 


Constitution  of  the  United  States  595 

Section  2.     Power  of  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XVI  i 

INCOME  TAX 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the 
several  states,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII 2 
SENATE:  ELECTION:  VACANCIES 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  state,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  state  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of 
the  state  legislatures. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  state  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  state  shall  issue  writs  of 
election  to  fill  such  vacancies:  Provided,  That  the  legislature  of  any 
state  may  empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appoint- 
ment until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature 
may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE  XVIII 3 

NATIONAL  PROHIBITION 

SECTION  i — After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the 
manufacture,  sale  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 
importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United 
States  and  all  territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  beverage 
purposes  is  hereby  prohibited. 

1  Adopted  in  1913. 
8  Adopted  in  1913. 
3  Adopted  in  1919. 


596  Problems  of  American  Democracy 

SECTION  2 — The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  con- 
current power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

SECTION  3 — This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have 
been  ratified  as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  legislatures 
of  the  several  States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitution,  within  seven 
years  of  the  date  of  the  submission  hereof  to  the  States  by  Congress. 

ARTICLE  XDC  ' 
WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 

SECTION  i — The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall 
not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  sex. 

SECTION  2 — Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

1  Adopted  in  1920. 


INDEX 


Accessibility,  15. 

Adjustment,  4  et  seq.,  540,  567. 

Agricultural  resources,  197,  198. 

Almshouse,  452  et  seq. 

Altruism,  566. 

Amendments,  71. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  360  et 

seq. 

American  state,  57  et  seq. 
Appropriation  bills,  93. 
Asiatic  immigration,  172  et  seq. 
Australian  ballot,  101. 

B 

Ballot,  101. 
Banking: 

Federal  Reserve  Act,  312  et  seq. 

National  Banking  Act,  311  et  seq. 

state  institutions,  314. 
Barter,  304,  305. 
Bill  drafting,  91  et  seq. 
Bill  of  Rights,  71. 
Bimetallism,  310  et  seq. 
Birth  rates,  150,  151. 
Blacklists,  372. 
Blind,  500  et  seq. 
Bonds,  254. 
Boycotts,  372. 

British  cabinet  government,  79, 
Budgets: 

family,  421  et  seq. 

system,  93. 
Business: 

enterpriser,  248,  249. 

organization,  248  et  seq. 


Cabinet  government,  78,  79. 

Capital,  224  et  seq.,  234  et  seq.,  248  et 

seq. 

Capital  punishment,  495. 
Charity,  445  et  seq 


Checks  and  balances,  77. 
Child: 

labor,  386  et  seq. 

offenders,  496  et  seq. 
Church,  567  et  seq. 
Citizenship: 

duties,  85  et  seq. 

in  territories,  105. 
City: 

charters,  128. 

congestion,  118  et  seq. 

distribution,  112,  113. 

early  conditions,  in  et  seq. 

franchises,  136,  137. 

government,  127  et  seq. 

growth,  112  et  seq. 

health,  121  et  seq. 

legal  character,  127. 

manager,  131. 

planning,  114,  115. 

political  corruption,  129. 

state,  51. 

utilities,  134. 

Civil  Service  Reform,  101. 
Clan,  50. 

Clayton  Act,  268,  359. 
Climatic  influences,  19  et  seq. 
Closed  shop,  368. 
Collective  bargaining,  367  et  seq. 
Commercial  expansion,  298  et  seq. 
Commission  government,  130. 
Commissions  on  industrial  relations,  3/5 

et  seq. 

Committees  of  Congress,  91. 
Competition: 

effects,  35. 

wastes,  347. 

Compulsory  arbitration,  377. 
Congestion,  118  et  seq. 
Congressional  government,  78,  79. 
Conservation: 

human,  385  et  seq 

natural  resources,  208  et  seq. 


597 


Index 


Consumers*  League,  372,  390. 
Constitutional: 

amendments,  71. 

guarantees,  71. 
Cooperation,  6,  35,  37,  236  et  seq.,  371 

et  seq.,  380  et  seq. 

Cooperative  movement,  380  et  seq. 
Corporation: 

advantages,  250,  251. 

character,  250. 

organization,  252,  253. 

promotion,  251  et  seq. 

securities,  253,  254. 

social  dangers,  255  et  seq. 
Country  life,  124. 
Courts,  77. 

Court  of  Industrial  Relations,  377. 
Crime,  464  et  seq. 
Crippled,  505  et  seq. 
Crowd,  29  et  seq. 
Currency,  304  et  seq. 
Customs,  24  et  seq. 


Deaf,  503  et  seq. 
Death  rates,  153  et  seq. 
Defectives,  499  et  seq. 
Delinquents,  464  et  seq. 
Dependents,  429  et  seq. 
Direct  election  of  senators,  100. 
Direct  primaries,  103. 
Distribution  of  wealth,  330  et  seq. 
Division  of  labor,  237  et  seq. 
Division  of  powers  of  government,  76. 
Divorce,  525  etseq. 
Dynamic  society,  2. 


Education,  543  etseq. 
English  parliament,  78,  79. 
Enterpriser,  248,  249. 
Environment: 

American,  194  et  seq. 

physical,  13  et  seq 

social,  24  et  seq. 
Epileptics,  509,  510. 
Esch-Cummins  Act,  281. 
Excise  tax,  323. 
Executive,  76  et  seq. 
Expansion  of  nation,  95  et  seq.,  104  et  seq. 


Exploitation,  106. 
Exports,  298  et  seq. 
Express  companies,  283. 


Factors  in  production,  224. 
Factory  system,  231,  232. 
Family,  si&ct  seq. 
Family  budgets,  421  et  seq. 
Fatigue,  364. 

Federal  Reserve  System,  3 1 2  et  seq. 
Federal  Trade  Commission,  268,  269. 
Feeble-minded,  310  et  seq. 
Folkways,  25  et  seq. 
Forest  conservation,  211  el  seq. 
Franchises,  136  etseq. 
French  settlers,  63,  64. 
Frontier,  96. 

Functions  of  government,  73,  74,  82  et 
seq. 


Gas  and  electric  service,  135. 
General  property  tax,  326,  327. 
German  immigrants,  159. 
Government: 

city,  1 24  et  seq. 

general  functions,  73. 

national,  82  et  seq.,  87  et  seq. 
Group: 

life,  34  et  seq. 

mind,  24  et  seq. 

standards,  562  et  seq. 
Guarantees  of  constitution,  71. 
Guilds,  229,  230. 
Guild  socialism,  351. 

H 

Health,  121  etseq. 
Heredity,  9,  473,  5",  574. 
Housing  conditions,  118  et  seq. 


Immigration: 

Asiatic,  172. 

causes,  158. 

distribution,  167,  168. 

early  groups,  159,  160. 

effects,  1 68 etseq. 

later  groups,  160  et  seq. 

restrictions,  174  et  seq. 
Imperialism,  104  et  seq. 


Index 


599 


Imports,  298  ei  seq. 
Income : 

earned  and  unearned,  338,  339. 

national,  330  et  seq. 

tax,  324. 

Independence,  66. 
Indian,  191,  192. 
Industrial: 

accidents,  401  et  seq. 

arbitration,  377. 

conflict,  375  «<  seq. 

education,  549  et  seq. 

management,  246,  247. 

organization,  561  et  seq. 

revolution,  223  et  seq. 

society,  224  et  seq. 

Workers  of  the  World,  361  et  seq. 
Inequality,  347.  348- 
Inflation,  307,  308. 
Inheritance  tax,  327,  328. 
Initiative,  102. 
Insurance,  social,  410  et  seq. 
Injunction,  374. 
Insane,  507  et  seq. 
Institutions,  44,  52  et  seq. 
Insular  possessions,  105. 
Interest,  333. 

International  trade,  286  et  seq. 
Interstate  Commerce  Act,  277,  278. 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  278. 
Inventions,  40  et  seq.,  225. 
Irish  immigration,  159. 
Isolation,  16. 
Italian  immigration,  162. 


Judiciary,  77. 

Jury  trial,  482  et  seq. 

Juvenile  courts,  496. 


Knights  of  Labor,  360. 


Laissez-faire,  84. 

Labor  organizations,  357  et  seq. 

Large  scale  production,  243  et  seq. 

Latin  America,  65. 

Law,  54,  466- 

Law  making,  91  et  seq. 

Local  government,  73. 

Lockouts,  373- 


M 

Machinery,  inventions,  230  et  seq. 
Maladjustment,  4. 
Malthusian  theory,  144. 
Mandatories,  106. 
Manorial  system,  229. 
Manuf  acturkig : 

early  American,  233. 

changes  in,  230  et  seq~ 
Marriage,  521  et  seq. 
Medieval  cities,  in. 
Mental  defectives,  507  et  seq. 
Middle  colonies,  62  et  seq. 
Military  service,  86. 
Minerals: 

conservation,  214  et  seq. 

wealth,  199  et  seq. 
Minimum  standards,  423  et  seq. 
Money,  304  et  seq. 
Monopoly,  261  et  seq. 
Monroe  Doctrine,  105,  106. 
Morality,  560  et  seq. 
Municipal: 

functions,  132  et  seq. 

government,  129  et  seq. 

N 
National: 

banks,  311  et  seq. 

expansion,  95  et  seq. 

expenditures,  321  et  seq. 

government,  82  et  seq. 

income,  330  et  seq. 

problems,  74. 

state,  52,  46  et  seq.,  64  et  seq. 
Natural: 

resources,  194  et  seq. 

selection,  36. 
Neanderthal  man,  38. 
Negro,  ijgetseq. 
New  England  colonies,  61  et  seq. 


Occupational  risks,  406  et  seq. 
Open  shop,  368. 
Organized  charity,  457 
Output,  366. 
Overcapitalization,  256. 


Pace  setting,  366. 

Parliamentary  government,  78,  79,  91 
et  seq. 


6oo 


Index 


Parole,  494. 
Partnership,  249,  250. 
Party: 

caucus,  gi. 

platforms,  89. 
Pauperism,  432. 
Penology,  479  et  seq. 
Physical  environment: 

effects,  13  et  seq. 

of  America,  194  et  seq. 
Police  power  of  state,  83. 
Political  parties,  88  et  seq. 
Population: 

distribution,  148  et  seq. 

law  of,  144. 

modern  increase,  142  et  seq. 

vital  statistics,  150  et  seq. 
Poverty,  429  et  seq. 
President,  76  et  seq. 
Prices,  306,  307. 
Primaries,  103. 
Primitive  man,  38. 
Prisons,  488  et  seq. 
Profits,  335. 

Profit  sharing,  379  et  seq. 
Progress,  7,  570  et  seq. 
Promoter,  251  et  seq. 
Property  rights,  54. 
Property  tax,  326,  327. 
Public: 

education,  543  et  seq. 

health,  121  et  seq. 

opinion,  87. 

ownership,  137  et  seq. 

utilities,  133  et  seq.,  273. 
Puritan  element,  61. 

R 
Race: 

origins,  180. 

problems,  179  et  seq. 
Railroads: 

accidents,  408. 

growth,  274  et  seq. 

labor  board,  281. 

rates,  282. 

regulation,  277  et  seq. 
Rainfall,  20  et  seq. 
Real  wages,  420. 
Recall  of  judicial  decisions,  103. 
Reclamation,  215  etseq. 
Referendum,  102. 


Regulation,  governmental,  84. 

Relief,  454  et  seq. 

Rent,  333,  334- 

Representative  government,  91  et  seq. 

Rochdale  Cooperative  plan,  381. 

Rural  conditions,  1 24  et  seq. 

Russian  Jewish  immigration,  164. 

S 

Sabotage,  362. 

Scandinavian  immigration,  160. 
Schools,  543  et  seq. 
Scientific  management,  245,  246,  405  et 

seq. 

Scotch-Irish  immigration,  63. 
Secret  ballot,  101. 
Securities,  253  et  seq. 
Senators,  direct  election,  zoo. 
Separation  of  powers,  76. 
Sherman  Law,  268,  279. 
Shop  committees,  378. 
Short  ballot,  101. 
Sickness,  411  ft  seq. 
Single  tax,  342  et  seq. 
Slav  immigration,  163. 
Slavery,  54,  181  et  seq. 
Social: 

control,  31,  84,  85. 

environment,  24  et  seq. 

evolution,  35  et  seq. 

ideal,  557. 

institutions,  44. 

insurance,  410  et  seq. 

morality,  560  et  seq. 

progress,  570  et  seq. 

standards,  467,  470. 
Socialism,  345  et  seq. 
Southern  colonies,  58  et  seq. 
Spanish  war  possessions,  105. 
Speaker  of  House  of  Representatives,  91 . 
Speculation,  257. 
Spoils  system,  101. 
Standards  of  living,  417  et  seq. 
State: 

American,  58  et  seq. 

problems,  75. 

social  institution,  46  et  seq. 
Static  society,  2. 
Stocks,  253,  254. 
Stock  exchange,  256,  257* 
Stock  watering,  256. 
Strikes,  373. 


Index 


601 


Struggle  for  existence,  35. 

Suffrage,  gg. 

Suggestion,  29. 

Supreme  Court  decisions,  269. 

Sweat  shop,  395  et  seq. 

Syndicalism,  362. 


Tariff,  290  et  seq. 
Taxation: 

function  of  state,  86. 

federal,  321  et  seq. 

increase,  318. 

kinds,  318,  319. 

local,  326. 

principles,  319,  320. 

state,  325. 

Telegraph  and  telephone,  283. 
Temperature,  19  et  seq. 
Tenements,  118. 
Trade  unions,  358  et  seq. 
Tradition,  24  et  seq. 
Transportation: 

municipal,  136. 

national,  272  et  seq.,  201  et  seq. 
Tribe,  51. 
Trusts,  264  et  seq. 


U 

Unemployment,  402  et  seq. 
Union: 

of  colonies,  67. 

of  labor,  357  et  seq. 
Urban  growth,  109  et  seq. 
Utopia,  2. 

V 

Value  in  exchange,  240. 
Vital  statistics,  150  et  seq. 
Vocational  education,  549  et  seq. 

W 

Wages,  335  et  seq.,  363,  364,  396,  420. 

Walking  delegates,  367. 

Wants,  419. 

War,  52  et  seq. 

Water  resources,  201  et  seq. 

Water  transportation,  283  et  seq. 

Water  supply  of  cities,  134. 

Weather  influences,  21. 

Welfare  work,  397,  398. 

Westward  movement,  95  et  seq. 

Woman  suffrage,  99. 

Woman's  movement,  536. 

Women  in  industry,  392  et  seq. 

Working  conditions,  364  et  seq.,  368. 

Workmen's  compensation,  410. 


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